The use of language learning strategies in English reading at Doan Ket secondary school - An investigation

12th graders with basic knowledge for the entrance tests in college. In short, after this comparison, educators found ways to redesign the suitable programs minimizing bias and maximizing a student’s replicability. Nazurty, Rustam, Priyanto, Nurullaningsih, Anggia Pratiwi, Sarmandan, Akhmad Habibi, Amirul Mukminin (2019) analyzed the English reading strategies, the types and frequencies of these English reading strategies used by Indonesian language education student teachers. The cognitive strategies were assessed through pre- reading, while-reading, and post-reading. Gender partly influenced learners’ reading strategies category (female students used cognitive strategies, male students used metacognitive strategies). Language student teachers in Indonesia have adapted the previous studies strategies of English reading used by Indonesian for struggling readers (OECD, 2015).

Reading is a foundation of other skills when reading strategies are an initial of other LLS in language fluency and competency. Berdanier & Lenart (2020) proposed the use of reading strategies and remembering from literature. Reading literature is an efficient method and skimming literature is the valuable one that readers should determine if literature is skimmed or read. Readers can take advantage of retaining important textual information or at least predictable relative terms in the literature contexts. Therefore, if there is no literacy intervention in secondary school students’ learning programs, students cannot afford to follow their other language skills during the language learning process. Truly, the teaching quality likely varied within and across secondary schools (Grossman, Loeb, Cohen, Hammerness, Wyckoff, Boyd & Lankford, 2010); thus, students’ learning attitudes and their engagement with them may not be high. Silawi, Shalhoub-Awwad, Prior & Safra (2020) studied the abilities of trilingual (Arabic, Hebrew, and English) in reading comprehension, which related to reading comprehension across first, second, and third

languages. Comprehension monitoring was shared across two ways: the languages of trilingual adults (domain-general) or language proficiency linkage (language-specific). As a result, English was weaker than the other two because of low proficient language and the underlying skills. In academic settings, individuals applied a domain-general skill (i.e. linguistic and nonlinguistic domains) in a similar manner. Comprehension monitoring might follow the different proficiencies across languages (i.e. the less use of language, the lower proficiency), so metacognitive monitoring in reading comprehension should be bolstered by intervention programs for promoting not only in the L1, but in the other languages used by multilinguals (i.e. calibration and its self-regulation skills in learning). The cognitive and non‐cognitive factors have related to adult‐age literacy skills afterwards or to the cause of low education and unemployment in society (e.g. reading disability). It means the educational and occupational outcomes are affected by childhood RD (c‐RD) (Kortteinen, Eklund, Eloranta & Aro, 2020) when learning outcomes are based on learners’ language skills and LLS, specially reading strategies on the way to language fluency and competency.

Various researchers have studied factors such as awareness, gender, aptitude, personality, affection, learning style and even language teaching methods influencing the choice of language learning strategies (Oxford and Nyikos, 1989; Ehrman and Oxford, 1989). As stated at the focus of this study, many language researchers in the world (from the 2000s up to now) have implemented the research domain on “Language Learning Strategies” in which the foremost one (correctly admitted and reused from there on) was from Oxford’s (1990), later Oxford’s (2013) as well as Oxford and her associates (1995, 2003, 2008, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2020) and from some others. So far, there have been three general features of these international studies: (1) The

innovative trends of sociolinguistics are forcing the alterability among language researches but still keeping the nature of “Language reading comprehension” without an obsoleting indication; (2) These studies may be chosen to represent the researcher’s critical thinking of this study and stepped in the common interests: “LLS use and instruction, especially Reading Strategies”; (3) Oxford (1990) defined and classified “Six Language Learning Strategies” but the users felt likely to center on learners’ cognitive and metacognitive strategies most. And hence, the differences from the application scope in the diverse dimensions among researchers are inevitable, that Oxford (2013) raised the three dominances of LLS are cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-interactive dimensions as the newest update later on. Weinstein, Husman & Dierking (2000) proposed that students must attend to both the learning skills and the learning motivation to attain self-regulation during their process because the skills and learner’s will be the two decisive elements. Weinstein et al. (2000) also included the three main aspects of self-regulated learning including cognitive, metacognitive and motivation and explained the definitions of them. Cognition is as an implication of learning strategies on learners’ own process. Metacognition means that learners can regulate their learning processes through the use of learning strategies to take their progress. Motivation refers to a learner’s will to learn anything inside or outside the world view (e.g. learn from texts). Depending upon vocabulary, grammar and content knowledge, students can perform their language learning ability. Moreover, students can assess their language understanding and use by self-checking the available questions online under the digital aids (computer’s assistance). In consequence, the mixed approach of quantitative and qualitative methods in this journal indicated an effective classroom originating in stipulating students’ learning interest, together with employing computer environments to foster

their language skills. This itself affirmed the importance of technology development and its application in any educational environment.

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Some practical studies showed the related factors as a new trend in language acquisition beside the concerns of LLS. Suwanarak (2019) employed a mixed-methods research methodology and explored a repertoire of learning strategies of Thai EFL students for their English learning achievement. It highlighted the effects of strategy instruction on the students’ LLS awareness. The correlation was identified via the learning strategy use and the English learning achievement, different frequency of strategy usage with high and low achievers of English language learning. Finally, some implications for the pedagogical perspectives of EFL Thai teachers and students were chosen suitably. From this perspective, it is found that Asian countries seem to have similar problems in education and reading strategies may be the first of all skills to be reinforced by students and teachers. Pellicer-Sánchez, Conklin & Vilkaite-Lozdien (2020) examined the effect of pre-reading vocabulary instruction on learners’ attention and vocabulary learning. They assessed participants through the four conditions of pre-reading instruction, reading- only, reading-baseline, and instruction-only. Learners’ attention was measured by Eye-tracking amount on the vocabulary during reading. It resulted in pre- reading instruction and text reading took learners’ learning progressive and their vocabulary increased, over reading-only and instruction-only. The targeted vocabulary was from form recognition, meaning recall, and meaning recognition while cumulative reading was a predictor of scoring meaning recognition, then pre-reading instruction facilitates word-to-text integration. Wolsey’s recent research (2020) assumed that learners’ self‐assessment in reading helps establish the suitable learning criteria themselves or adapt to the established ones, control over their learning better through metacognitive

awareness (e.g. the particular skills, learning strategies, or used language, multiple learning tasks, etc.). Malang (2020) identified the problems relevant to LLS such as vocational college learners’ language learning strategy use, its relationships with English proficiency and the instruction of self-directed learning to improve learners’ language proficiency.

From the practice of previous studies, this study considers forming two explicit tendencies of language learning strategies according to those studies:

(1) More use of LLS helps students with better reading performance; (2) Less use of LLS makes students worse or no difference in reading performance. Each one has their own strengths and weaknesses which are going to have further discussion later in the final thesis of this chapter. Here, some given general evidence towards these tendencies is not completely full, just as brief explanations before entering a deeper research, and the more ideas will be supplemented. Children should approach language reading soon as a first step in the process of cognitive awareness. Cowan & Sarmad (1976) indicated that Language reading performance of bilingual children differs under the types of school and home language. This research used a quantitative approach to examine the performance of bilingual children in reading Persian and English at grades one, three and six through Means and Variance in multiple comparisons among English reading comprehension and vocabulary, AN0VA for bilingual schools (English reading). Their first objective here was to investigate to what extent the bilingual children could learn to read English and Persian languages under the different writing systems. Simultaneously, the next objective determined to which extent the program types would contribute to the bilingual children’s bilingual reading competence, and compare with the monolingual children’s interaction at home language. Their competence development in reading both languages makes dissimilarity between language

systems, thus it needed developing a separate reading strategy for each language. Children can perform how much they understand about linguistics they are using from the bilingual programs at the beginning time at school. Moreover, the first home language is the main factor of developing children’s reading ability that decides whether a child will use which language best (e.g. English, Persian or any language). People discovered that children at grades one and three (at primary schools) may be the initial step for the next level – grade six (at secondary schools). Moreover, the language choice and development of students also depend on the nature of designed bilingual programs in the school system (this school emphasizes on English or another language). One more time, it affirmed that types of school and home language environment affected bilingual children’s reading performance. Hype (1972, cited in Richards & Rodgers, 2001) and Oxford’s studies also demonstrated learners’ communicative competence as the goal of LLT, therefore learners must retain new information and skills (at least reading skill according to their core vocabulary) and as a support to other language skills a student with communicative competence must have knowledge and the ability for language use. Oxford (1990) indicated the essential characteristics of language learning strategies that contribute to both theories and practice. For example, a contribution to the main goal of language learning: communicative competence, self-directed, problem- oriented, etc. Selinker & Susan (2008, p.440) stated that “learning strategies clearly involve internal mental actions, but they may also involve physical actions as well”, “strategic learning involves an overall goal - being proﬁcient in a SL/ FL”. However, the majority of former researchers emphasized on LLS, mostly reading strategies represented in reading outcome, the latter ones gradually based on learners’ language reading ability to instruct LLS and help promote their language competence sooner. Now, reading also develops its own strategies as a part of attaining a SL/ FL,

so reading strategy instruction is indispensable to an overall LLS though there remain the limits in the implications such as using standardized tests for English reading comprehension measure, or portfolios for students’ reading investigation. People examined and insisted that among the LLS, the cognitive and metacognitive strategies had the highest appreciation in the various educational systems (primarily from Europe to Asia, e.g. USA, UK, France, Indonesia, Thai, etc.). The reading programs have much support for learners’ STELLAR. Clearly, the two tendencies of language learning strategies of secondary school students under these studies have explicitly presented the strength of LLS use (mostly reading strategies), LLS choice and the application modality in respective contexts. In common with the innovativeness, reading strategies are as pioneers interacting with other LLS to make firm interlacements during a person’s language learning process. Oxford (2013) revised LLS and the LLS use on the specific language skills or language areas that helped learners apply “the strategic self-regulation model”. Oxford (2017) continued stating that self-regulation, agency, and related factors were considered as the “soul of learning strategies” for language proficiency in the twenty-first century, enhancing “self-regulation in context”. Therefore, Oxford (2020) specifically suggested using reading strategies through the comprehensive reading in LLT, posing the significance of LLS use and creating the premises to students’ autonomous learning in future. As an inadequate comparison, some following domestic studies can show how LLS or reading strategies were used and applied in the educational contexts in Vietnam.

2.3.2. Some domestic studies (in Vietnam)

As Creswell (2012, p.376) defined, “Survey research designs are procedures in quantitative research in which investigators administer a survey to a sample or to the entire population of people to describe the attitudes,

opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of the population”. The majority of the studies in Vietnam have emphasized ELT as a second language (SL) while this study focused ELT as a foreign language (FL). As stated before, the research population of this study was DK Secondary School representing the facts of the most used LLS which influenced DK students’ performance in reading EFL while other similar studies in Vietnam nearly focus on the other aspects in teaching and learning ESL at such upper levels as high schools, colleges, and tertiary education, neglecting Lower Secondary Education - the foremost basic stage of children’s language learning process. Therefore, as a comparison of LLS between Vietnam and other countries based on an evident synthesis of Vietnamese researchers from after the 2000s on, expressing what the practical studies on English language learning and teaching in Vietnam were and how those studies of Vietnamese students were explored, that showed a common feature for apprehending a foreign language over the world: reading strategies have been employed throughout the countries and brought into the promotion of learners’ foreign language ability. That language performance, specifically the comprehensive reading may differ from country to country; nevertheless, it was suggested applying suitably for educational sectors as value lessons to Vietnam’s English LLT, especially that showed the significance of LLS choice to see which of LLS should be most employed in the secondary schools in Vietnam.

The studies in Vietnam have explored learners’ different perspectives of English language; however, there was not a specialized sector in LLS research only, but overall situations in ELT. Vietnam education also promoted the strength of LLS and reading strategies in ELT; however, it was limited to LLS research in Vietnam and what can be seen as the floating face of cases - the random patterns of research (at universities or colleges). For instance, Nhon