4. In the conditions of open competition and the operation of a market economy, it is necessary to attach importance to the management of industries. After separating business and management, opening the market, the management of industries can only be strengthened, not weakened. The direction, supervision and inspection of the market by the state is to ensure the healthy and dynamic development of the market. For the information industry, strengthening state management must first have innovation, change in awareness and function, how to truly manage the industry, manage the market and manage the macro; At the same time, knowing how to base on the different operating times of the manufacturing industry and the exploitation business industry to build management systems with the specific characteristics of each industry. Actively encourage manufacturers and operators to take the market as a lever, reach out together, develop together, create a combined strength to promote the development of the information industry.
5. The more difficult the development task and the higher the level of reform, the more firmly we must grasp the requirement: maintaining a civilized order. The development practice of China's information industry over the past five years clearly shows that when faced with adjusting interests and conflicting issues arising in the reform process, we must firmly grasp the construction of spiritual civilization, the construction of team leaders , and the construction of the style of agencies and enterprises. Take team building to promote reform and development, and take ideological and political work to stabilize industries. Paying attention to fighting corruption, negativity and social evils is the guarantee of the spiritual civilization of agencies and enterprises. That is the ideological guarantee for the continuous development of the information industry in the new stage.
China's experience in building and developing telecommunications networks are valuable practical lessons for Vietnam's telecommunications industry in the process of economic integration and WTO accession.
1.4.1.2. Indonesia:
From 1967 to 1996, Indonesia attracted 173.6 billion USD of FDI capital. The reason Indonesia achieved such results was due to:
- Do not nationalize foreign-invested enterprises.
- Improve investment procedures, eliminate research and survey procedures, eliminate the need to explain the types and values of imported machinery and many other types of licenses.
- Applying foreign investment incentive policies with a maximum tax rate of 30% to increase profits and tax deductions on holidays for foreign investors. Exemption of turnover tax on exported goods, materials and services, exemption of VAT within 5 years from the date of production and business for the fields of hotels, offices, commercial centers, public transport, reduction of income tax if profits are used for reinvestment within 5 years, reduction of turnover tax at maximum
maximum of 5 years, shortening the depreciation period of fixed assets.
- Encourage the establishment of foreign banks to facilitate the implementation of FDI projects.
- One point worth noting is that in Indonesia, FDI is implemented in the form of joint ventures only and joint venture enterprises are treated like domestic enterprises. The legal capital ratio of foreign investors in joint venture enterprises was initially 95.5% and Indonesian capital was only about 5%, but
Up to now, after several years of receiving FDI capital, Indonesia owns at least 51% of the legal capital.
Foreign investors can reinvest, transfer profits easily and operate FDI projects for a period of 30 years.
Like other countries, Indonesia has been actively opening up its telecommunications sector over the past 10 years. The origins of this problem were marked by the privatization of two state-owned telecommunications service companies, PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia (Telcom) and PT Indonesia Satellite Company (Indosat), in the early 1990s. The government was the largest shareholder in both companies. The next major competitor, PT Satelit Palapa Indonesia (Satelindo), was licensed in 1993 and began providing services in August 1994.
There are two factors that promote the process of opening up the telecommunications market of Indonesia: the agreement on basic telecommunications services that this country signed with the WTO (this schedule is relatively long compared to other developed countries, local telephone is in 2011, domestic long distance is in 2006, international long distance is in 2005) and meeting the conditions to restructure the economy in exchange for financial support from the IMF after the economic and monetary crisis.
In July 1999, the government's telecommunications policy blueprint was issued. The blueprint called for improving the performance and opening up of the telecommunications market through competition and the elimination of monopolies, increasing regulatory clarity, strengthening strategic alliances with foreign investors, and creating business opportunities for small and medium-sized enterprises. These goals were further clarified in the "telecommunications law", which eliminated the concept of "organizations", thereby eliminating Telcom's requirement to have a stake in all telecommunications operators. The Telecommunications Law clearly divides telecommunications activities into three categories: network operation, service operation, and operation of special telecommunications activities. The operation of telecommunications networks or the provision of telecommunications services can be carried out by any legal entity. A network provider may also provide telecommunications services, while a service provider may use its own network or lease network equipment from another network provider. Individuals, government agencies, special organizations or legal entities may provide special telecommunications activities for national security and broadcasting purposes.
The Indonesian government signed a Letter of Intent (LoI) with the IMF requiring Telcom and Indosat to resolve their cross-ownership conflicts. The LoI also required Telcom and Indosat to divest their ownership in non-strategic companies by the end of 2001.
The government facilitates the provision of all telecommunication services to society. The government allows foreign corporations to buy shares in service providers to attract foreign investment.
1.4.1.3. Thailand:
To encourage foreign investment in the country, the Thai government does not stipulate a mandatory condition for the capital contribution ratio of joint ventures. However, projects that allow Thailand to contribute more than 50% of capital will be granted a guarantee certificate by the investment committee. For the field of infrastructure construction, Thailand has agreed to exempt import tax on machinery and equipment. Thailand also pays special attention to improving administrative procedures to facilitate foreign investors by many ways.
times to improve licensing procedures and project implementation procedures towards encouraging foreign investors.
The Thai telecommunications industry dates back to the 19th century. In 1875, Mayjesty, King Rama V, approved the Ministry of Defense to lay a telegraph cable from Bangkok to the remote province of Samut Prakan, located on the east bank at the mouth of the Chao Phraya River, with a total length of 45 km. The first telephone service was installed in 1881. Thailand joined the ITU (the Telegraph Union at that time) on April 20, 1883 as one of the first Asian member countries , after India (1869) and Japan (1897).
The development of the telecommunications industry continued on a small scale, and by the 1930s there were several thousand telephone subscribers, mainly in the capital. The Main Electricity Department (PTD), an arm of the government, was directly responsible for telecommunications services. In 1954, the telephone service was separated from the PTD and became the Telephone Organization of Thailand (TOT) (initially serving the capital metropolitan area).
Bangkok and nationwide development a few years later). In late 1997, the activities
The postal, currency, telegraph, telex, international telecommunications and other services were split off and TOT became the Telecommunications Authority of Thailand (CAT). As a result, PTD was significantly reduced in size, although it remained responsible for frequency management.
Thailand's remarkable network growth was largely influenced by two factors. First, the policy shift in the early 1990s toward a
The TOT and CAT's decision to transfer network development to private companies under Build-Transfer-Operate (BOT) arrangements. Second, the effects of the financial crisis of the late 1990s. By September 2001, Thailand had reached a fixed-line density of nearly 10 and the number of mobile users exceeded that of fixed-line users. After a slow growth and decline in mobile in 1997-1999, network growth stabilized again.
Table 1.6 Build-Transfer-Operate Agreements (as of September 2000)
Service
Project | Transfer Partner but | Duration ( year) | Licensing by | Match date copper | Status | |
Phone | 2.6 million landline in Bangkok | Telecom Asia | 25 | TOT | 1992 | 3 rough change to provide public phone, VAS, PCS |
1.5 million landline in the provinces | TT&T | 25 | TOT | 1993 | ||
Telephone maths | Phone | Lenso | 15 | CAT | 1994 | |
Phone long way | Optical cable along the track | Com-link | 20 | TOT | 1991 | |
Optical cable sea | Jasmine | 20 | TOT | 1991 | ||
Legend of the Condor Heroes crystal in water | Acumen | 15 | TOT | 1996 | ||
isbn | Acumen | 15 | TOT | 1991 | ||
VSAT | SiamSat | 22 | CAT | 1994 | ||
VSAT | WorldSat | 22 | CAT | 1995 | ||
VSAT | Usat | 22 | CAT | End 1998 | ||
Data whether | DataNet | Advanced Data Network | 25 | TOT | 1990 | Revised 1997 |
Video-text | Lines Technology | 15 | TOT | 1993 | Cancelled in 1997 | |
Move cell movement | NMT 900, GSM 900 | AIS | 25 | TOT | 1990 | |
AMPS 800, GSM 1800 | TACS | 27 | CAT | 1990 | Revised 1996 | |
Digital GSM 1800 | Wireless Comm. | 17 | CAT | 1996 | Acquired by CP Orange | |
Digital DCS 1800 | DPC | 16 | CAT | 1996 | AIS buy |
Maybe you are interested!
-
Social security for farmers in market economy conditions in Vietnam - 1 -
Perfecting the interest rate management mechanism of the State Bank of Vietnam in the conditions of a market economy - 30 -
Application of Science and Technology in the Development of Tourism Economy in the Northern Key Economic Zone -
Choosing Technology and Networking Solutions -
![Qos Assurance Methods for Multimedia Communications
zt2i3t4l5ee
zt2a3gs
zt2a3ge
zc2o3n4t5e6n7ts
low. The EF PHB requires a sufficiently large number of output ports to provide low delay, low loss, and low jitter.
EF PHBs can be implemented if the output ports bandwidth is sufficiently large, combined with small buffer sizes and other network resources dedicated to EF packets, to allow the routers service rate for EF packets on an output port to exceed the arrival rate λ of packets at that port.
This means that packets with PHB EF are considered with a pre-allocated amount of output bandwidth and a priority that ensures minimum loss, minimum delay and minimum jitter before being put into operation.
PHB EF is suitable for channel simulation, leased line simulation, and real-time services such as voice, video without compromising on high loss, delay and jitter values.
Figure 2.10 Example of EF installation
Figure 2.10 shows an example of an EF PHB implementation. This is a simple priority queue scheduling technique. At the edges of the DS domain, EF packet traffic is prioritized according to the values agreed upon by the SLA. The EF queue in the figure needs to output packets at a rate higher than the packet arrival rate λ. To provide an EF PHB over an end-to-end DS domain, bandwidth at the output ports of the core routers needs to be allocated in advance to ensure the requirement μ > λ. This can be done by a pre-configured provisioning process. In the figure, EF packets are placed in the priority queue (the upper queue). With such a length, the queue can operate with μ > λ.
Since EF was primarily used for real-time services such as voice and video, and since real-time services use UDP instead of TCP, RED is generally
not suitable for EF queues because applications using UDP will not respond to random packet drop and RED will strip unnecessary packets.
2.2.4.2 Assured Forwarding (AF) PHB
PHB AF is defined by RFC 2597. The purpose of PHB AF is to deliver packets reliably and therefore delay and jitter are considered less important than packet loss. PHB AF is suitable for non-real-time services such as applications using TCP. PHB AF first defines four classes: AF1, AF2, AF3, AF4. For each of these AF classes, packets are then classified into three subclasses with three distinct priority levels.
Table 2.8 shows the four AF classes and 12 AF subclasses and the DSCP values for the 12 AF subclasses defined by RFC 2597. RFC 2597 also allows for more than three separate priority levels to be added for internal use. However, these separate priority levels will only have internal significance.
PHB Class
PHB Subclass
Package type
DSCP
AF4
AF41
Short
100010
AF42
Medium
100100
AF43
High
100110
AF3
AF31
Short
011010
AF32
Medium
011100
AF33
High
011110
AF2
AF21
Short
010010
AF22
Medium
010100
AF23
High
010110
AF1
AF11
Short
001010
AF12
Medium
001100
AF13
High
001110
Table 2.8 AF DSCPs
The AF PHB ensures that packets are forwarded with a high probability of delivery to the destination within the bounds of the rate agreed upon in an SLA. If AF traffic at an ingress port exceeds the pre-priority rate, which is considered non-compliant or “out of profile”, the excess packets will not be delivered to the destination with the same probability as the packets belonging to the defined traffic or “in profile” packets. When there is network congestion, the out of profile packets are dropped before the in profile packets are dropped.
When service levels are defined using AF classes, different quantity and quality between AF classes can be realized by allocating different amounts of bandwidth and buffer space to the four AF classes. Unlike
EF, most AF traffic is non-real-time traffic using TCP, and the RED queue management strategy is an AQM (Adaptive Queue Management) strategy suitable for use in AF PHBs. The four AF PHB layers can be implemented as four separate queues. The output port bandwidth is divided into four AF queues. For each AF queue, packets are marked with three “colors” corresponding to three separate priority levels.
In addition to the 32 DSCP 1 groups defined in Table 2.8, 21 DSCPs have been standardized as follows: one for PHB EF, 12 for PHB AF, and 8 for CSCP. There are 11 DSCP 1 groups still available for other standards.
2.2.5.Example of Differentiated Services
We will look at an example of the Differentiated Service model and mechanism of operation. The architecture of Differentiated Service consists of two basic sets of functions:
Edge functions: include packet classification and traffic conditioning. At the inbound edge of the network, incoming packets are marked. In particular, the DS field in the packet header is set to a certain value. For example, in Figure 2.12, packets sent from H1 to H3 are marked at R1, while packets from H2 to H4 are marked at R2. The labels on the received packets identify the service class to which they belong. Different traffic classes receive different services in the core network. The RFC definition uses the term behavior aggregate rather than the term traffic class. After being marked, a packet can be forwarded immediately into the network, delayed for a period of time before being forwarded, or dropped. We will see that there are many factors that affect how a packet is marked, and whether it is forwarded immediately, delayed, or dropped.
Figure 2.12 DiffServ Example
Core functionality: When a DS-marked packet arrives at a Diffservcapable router, the packet is forwarded to the next router based on
Per-hop behavior is associated with packet classes. Per-hop behavior affects router buffers and the bandwidth shared between competing classes. An important principle of the Differentiated Service architecture is that a routers per-hop behavior is based only on the packets marking or the class to which it belongs. Therefore, if packets sent from H1 to H3 as shown in the figure receive the same marking as packets from H2 to H4, then the network routers treat the packets exactly the same, regardless of whether the packet originated from H1 or H2. For example, R3 does not distinguish between packets from h1 and H2 when forwarding packets to R4. Therefore, the Differentiated Service architecture avoids the need to maintain router state about separate source-destination pairs, which is important for network scalability.
Chapter Conclusion
Chapter 2 has presented and clarified two main models of deploying and installing quality of service in IP networks. While the traditional best-effort model has many disadvantages, later models such as IntServ and DiffServ have partly solved the problems that best-effort could not solve. IntServ follows the direction of ensuring quality of service for each separate flow, it is built similar to the circuit switching model with the use of the RSVP resource reservation protocol. IntSer is suitable for services that require fixed bandwidth that is not shared such as VoIP services, multicast TV services. However, IntSer has disadvantages such as using a lot of network resources, low scalability and lack of flexibility. DiffServ was born with the idea of solving the disadvantages of the IntServ model.
DiffServ follows the direction of ensuring quality based on the principle of hop-by-hop behavior based on the priority of marked packets. The policy for different types of traffic is decided by the administrator and can be changed according to reality, so it is very flexible. DiffServ makes better use of network resources, avoiding idle bandwidth and processing capacity on routers. In addition, the DifServ model can be deployed on many independent domains, so the ability to expand the network becomes easy.
Chapter 3: METHODS TO ENSURE QoS FOR MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATIONS
In packet-switched networks, different packet flows often have to share the transmission medium all the way to the destination station. To ensure the fair and efficient allocation of bandwidth to flows, appropriate serving mechanisms are required at network nodes, especially at gateways or routers, where many different data flows often pass through. The scheduler is responsible for serving packets of the selected flow and deciding which packet will be served next. Here, a flow is understood as a set of packets belonging to the same priority class, or originating from the same source, or having the same source and destination addresses, etc.
In normal state when there is no congestion, packets will be sent as soon as they are delivered. In case of congestion, if QoS assurance methods are not applied, prolonged congestion can cause packet drops, affecting service quality. In some cases, congestion is prolonged and widespread in the network, which can easily lead to the network being frozen, or many packets being dropped, seriously affecting service quality.
Therefore, in this chapter, in sections 3.2 and 3.3, we introduce some typical network traffic load monitoring techniques to predict and prevent congestion before it occurs through the measure of dropping (removing) packets early when there are signs of impending congestion.
3.1. DropTail method
DropTail is a simple, traditional queue management method based on FIFO mechanism. All incoming packets are placed in the queue, when the queue is full, the later packets are dropped.
Due to its simplicity and ease of implementation, DropTail has been used for many years on Internet router systems. However, this algorithm has the following disadvantages:
− Cannot avoid the phenomenon of “Lock out”: Occurs when 1 or several traffic streams monopolize the queue, making packets of other connections unable to pass through the router. This phenomenon greatly affects reliable transmission protocols such as TCP. According to the anti-congestion algorithm, when locked out, the TCP connection stream will reduce the window size and reduce the packet transmission speed exponentially.
− Can cause Global Synchronization: This is the result of a severe “Lock out” phenomenon. Some neighboring routers have their queues monopolized by a number of connections, causing a series of other TCP connections to be unable to pass through and simultaneously reducing the transmission speed. After those monopolized connections are temporarily suspended,
Once the queue is cleared, it takes a considerable amount of time for TCP connections to return to their original speed.
− Full Queue phenomenon: Data transmitted on the Internet often has an explosion, packets arriving at the router are often in clusters rather than in turn. Therefore, the operating mechanism of DropTail makes the queue easily full for a long period of time, leading to the average delay time of large packets. To avoid this phenomenon, with DropTail, the only way is to increase the routers buffer, this method is very expensive and ineffective.
− No QoS guarantee: With the DropTail mechanism, there is no way to prioritize important packets to be transmitted through the router earlier when all are in the queue. Meanwhile, with multimedia communication, ensuring connection and stable speed is extremely important and the DropTail algorithm cannot satisfy.
The problem of choosing the buffer size of the routers in the network is to “absorb” short bursts of traffic without causing too much queuing delay. This is necessary in bursty data transmission. The queue size determines the size of the packet bursts (traffic spikes) that we want to be able to transmit without being dropped at the routers.
In IP-based application networks, packet dropping is an important mechanism for indirectly reporting congestion to end stations. A solution that prevents router queues from filling up while reducing the packet drop rate is called dynamic queue management.
3.2. Random elimination method – RED
3.2.1 Overview
RED (Random Early Detection of congestion; Random Early Drop) is one of the first AQM algorithms proposed in 1993 by Sally Floyd and Van Jacobson, two scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the University of California, USA. Due to its outstanding advantages compared to previous queue management algorithms, RED has been widely installed and deployed on the Internet.
The most fundamental point of their work is that the most effective place to detect congestion and react to it is at the gateway or router.
Source entities (senders) can also do this by estimating end-to-end delay, throughput variability, or the rate of packet retransmissions due to drop. However, the sender and receiver view of a particular connection cannot tell which gateways on the network are congested, and cannot distinguish between propagation delay and queuing delay. Only the gateway has a true view of the state of the queue, the link share of the connections passing through it at any given time, and the quality of service requirements of the
traffic flows. The RED gateway monitors the average queue length, which detects early signs of impending congestion (average queue length exceeding a predetermined threshold) and reacts appropriately in one of two ways:
− Drop incoming packets with a certain probability, to indirectly inform the source of congestion, the source needs to reduce the transmission rate to keep the queue from filling up, maintaining the ability to absorb incoming traffic spikes.
− Mark “congestion” with a certain probability in the ECN field in the header of TCP packets to notify the source (the receiving entity will copy this bit into the acknowledgement packet).
Figure 3. 1 RED algorithm
The main goal of RED is to avoid congestion by keeping the average queue size within a sufficiently small and stable region, which also means keeping the queuing delay sufficiently small and stable. Achieving this goal also helps: avoid global synchronization, not resist bursty traffic flows (i.e. flows with low average throughput but high volatility), and maintain an upper bound on the average queue size even in the absence of cooperation from transport layer protocols.
To achieve the above goals, RED gateways must do the following:
− The first is to detect congestion early and react appropriately to keep the average queue size small enough to keep the network operating in the low latency, high throughput region, while still allowing the queue size to fluctuate within a certain range to absorb short-term fluctuations. As discussed above, the gateway is the most appropriate place to detect congestion and is also the most appropriate place to decide which specific connection to report congestion to.
− The second thing is to notify the source of congestion. This is done by marking and notifying the source to reduce traffic. Normally the RED gateway will randomly drop packets. However, if congestion
If congestion is detected before the queue is full, it should be combined with packet marking to signal congestion. The RED gateway has two options: drop or mark; where marking is done by marking the ECN field of the packet with a certain probability, to signal the source to reduce the traffic entering the network.
− An important goal that RED gateways need to achieve is to avoid global synchronization and not to resist traffic flows that have a sudden characteristic. Global synchronization occurs when all connections simultaneously reduce their transmission window size, leading to a severe drop in throughput at the same time. On the other hand, Drop Tail or Random Drop strategies are very sensitive to sudden flows; that is, the gateway queue will often overflow when packets from these flows arrive. To avoid these two phenomena, gateways can use special algorithms to detect congestion and decide which connections will be notified of congestion at the gateway. The RED gateway randomly selects incoming packets to mark; with this method, the probability of marking a packet from a particular connection is proportional to the connections shared bandwidth at the gateway.
− Another goal is to control the average queue size even without cooperation from the source entities. This can be done by dropping packets when the average size exceeds an upper threshold (instead of marking it). This approach is necessary in cases where most connections have transmission times that are less than the round-trip time, or where the source entities are not able to reduce traffic in response to marking or dropping packets (such as UDP flows).
3.2.2 Algorithm
This section describes the algorithm for RED gateways. RED gateways calculate the average queue size using a low-pass filter. This average queue size is compared with two thresholds: minth and maxth. When the average queue size is less than the lower threshold, no incoming packets are marked or dropped; when the average queue size is greater than the upper threshold, all incoming packets are dropped. When the average queue size is between minth and maxth, each incoming packet is marked or dropped with a probability pa, where pa is a function of the average queue size avg; the probability of marking or dropping a packet for a particular connection is proportional to the bandwidth share of that connection at the gateway. The general algorithm for a RED gateway is described as follows: [5]
For each packet arrival
Caculate the average queue size avg If minth ≤ avg < maxth
div.maincontent .s1 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .s2 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .p { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; margin:0pt; }
div.maincontent p { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; margin:0pt; }
div.maincontent .s3 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s4 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s5 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s6 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s7 { color: black; font-family:Wingdings; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s8 { color: black; font-family:Arial, sans-serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .s9 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s10 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 9pt; vertical-align: 6pt; }
div.maincontent .s11 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 13pt; }
div.maincontent .s12 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 10pt; }
div.maincontent .s13 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-d](https://tailieuthamkhao.com/uploads/2022/05/15/danh-gia-hieu-qua-dam-bao-qos-cho-truyen-thong-da-phuong-tien-cua-chien-6-1-120x90.jpg)
Qos Assurance Methods for Multimedia Communications
zt2i3t4l5ee
zt2a3gs
zt2a3ge
zc2o3n4t5e6n7ts
low. The EF PHB requires a sufficiently large number of output ports to provide low delay, low loss, and low jitter.
EF PHBs can be implemented if the output port's bandwidth is sufficiently large, combined with small buffer sizes and other network resources dedicated to EF packets, to allow the router's service rate for EF packets on an output port to exceed the arrival rate λ of packets at that port.
This means that packets with PHB EF are considered with a pre-allocated amount of output bandwidth and a priority that ensures minimum loss, minimum delay and minimum jitter before being put into operation.
PHB EF is suitable for channel simulation, leased line simulation, and real-time services such as voice, video without compromising on high loss, delay and jitter values.
Figure 2.10 Example of EF installation
Figure 2.10 shows an example of an EF PHB implementation. This is a simple priority queue scheduling technique. At the edges of the DS domain, EF packet traffic is prioritized according to the values agreed upon by the SLA. The EF queue in the figure needs to output packets at a rate higher than the packet arrival rate λ. To provide an EF PHB over an end-to-end DS domain, bandwidth at the output ports of the core routers needs to be allocated in advance to ensure the requirement μ > λ. This can be done by a pre-configured provisioning process. In the figure, EF packets are placed in the priority queue (the upper queue). With such a length, the queue can operate with μ > λ.
Since EF was primarily used for real-time services such as voice and video, and since real-time services use UDP instead of TCP, RED is generally
not suitable for EF queues because applications using UDP will not respond to random packet drop and RED will strip unnecessary packets.
2.2.4.2 Assured Forwarding (AF) PHB
PHB AF is defined by RFC 2597. The purpose of PHB AF is to deliver packets reliably and therefore delay and jitter are considered less important than packet loss. PHB AF is suitable for non-real-time services such as applications using TCP. PHB AF first defines four classes: AF1, AF2, AF3, AF4. For each of these AF classes, packets are then classified into three subclasses with three distinct priority levels.
Table 2.8 shows the four AF classes and 12 AF subclasses and the DSCP values for the 12 AF subclasses defined by RFC 2597. RFC 2597 also allows for more than three separate priority levels to be added for internal use. However, these separate priority levels will only have internal significance.
PHB Class
PHB Subclass
Package type
DSCP
AF4
AF41
Short
100010
AF42
Medium
100100
AF43
High
100110
AF3
AF31
Short
011010
AF32
Medium
011100
AF33
High
011110
AF2
AF21
Short
010010
AF22
Medium
010100
AF23
High
010110
AF1
AF11
Short
001010
AF12
Medium
001100
AF13
High
001110
Table 2.8 AF DSCPs
The AF PHB ensures that packets are forwarded with a high probability of delivery to the destination within the bounds of the rate agreed upon in an SLA. If AF traffic at an ingress port exceeds the pre-priority rate, which is considered non-compliant or “out of profile”, the excess packets will not be delivered to the destination with the same probability as the packets belonging to the defined traffic or “in profile” packets. When there is network congestion, the out of profile packets are dropped before the in profile packets are dropped.
When service levels are defined using AF classes, different quantity and quality between AF classes can be realized by allocating different amounts of bandwidth and buffer space to the four AF classes. Unlike
EF, most AF traffic is non-real-time traffic using TCP, and the RED queue management strategy is an AQM (Adaptive Queue Management) strategy suitable for use in AF PHBs. The four AF PHB layers can be implemented as four separate queues. The output port bandwidth is divided into four AF queues. For each AF queue, packets are marked with three “colors” corresponding to three separate priority levels.
In addition to the 32 DSCP 1 groups defined in Table 2.8, 21 DSCPs have been standardized as follows: one for PHB EF, 12 for PHB AF, and 8 for CSCP. There are 11 DSCP 1 groups still available for other standards.
2.2.5.Example of Differentiated Services
We will look at an example of the Differentiated Service model and mechanism of operation. The architecture of Differentiated Service consists of two basic sets of functions:
Edge functions: include packet classification and traffic conditioning. At the inbound edge of the network, incoming packets are marked. In particular, the DS field in the packet header is set to a certain value. For example, in Figure 2.12, packets sent from H1 to H3 are marked at R1, while packets from H2 to H4 are marked at R2. The labels on the received packets identify the service class to which they belong. Different traffic classes receive different services in the core network. The RFC definition uses the term behavior aggregate rather than the term traffic class. After being marked, a packet can be forwarded immediately into the network, delayed for a period of time before being forwarded, or dropped. We will see that there are many factors that affect how a packet is marked, and whether it is forwarded immediately, delayed, or dropped.
Figure 2.12 DiffServ Example
Core functionality: When a DS-marked packet arrives at a Diffservcapable router, the packet is forwarded to the next router based on
Per-hop behavior is associated with packet classes. Per-hop behavior affects router buffers and the bandwidth shared between competing classes. An important principle of the Differentiated Service architecture is that a router's per-hop behavior is based only on the packet's marking or the class to which it belongs. Therefore, if packets sent from H1 to H3 as shown in the figure receive the same marking as packets from H2 to H4, then the network routers treat the packets exactly the same, regardless of whether the packet originated from H1 or H2. For example, R3 does not distinguish between packets from h1 and H2 when forwarding packets to R4. Therefore, the Differentiated Service architecture avoids the need to maintain router state about separate source-destination pairs, which is important for network scalability.
Chapter Conclusion
Chapter 2 has presented and clarified two main models of deploying and installing quality of service in IP networks. While the traditional best-effort model has many disadvantages, later models such as IntServ and DiffServ have partly solved the problems that best-effort could not solve. IntServ follows the direction of ensuring quality of service for each separate flow, it is built similar to the circuit switching model with the use of the RSVP resource reservation protocol. IntSer is suitable for services that require fixed bandwidth that is not shared such as VoIP services, multicast TV services. However, IntSer has disadvantages such as using a lot of network resources, low scalability and lack of flexibility. DiffServ was born with the idea of solving the disadvantages of the IntServ model.
DiffServ follows the direction of ensuring quality based on the principle of hop-by-hop behavior based on the priority of marked packets. The policy for different types of traffic is decided by the administrator and can be changed according to reality, so it is very flexible. DiffServ makes better use of network resources, avoiding idle bandwidth and processing capacity on routers. In addition, the DifServ model can be deployed on many independent domains, so the ability to expand the network becomes easy.
Chapter 3: METHODS TO ENSURE QoS FOR MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATIONS
In packet-switched networks, different packet flows often have to share the transmission medium all the way to the destination station. To ensure the fair and efficient allocation of bandwidth to flows, appropriate serving mechanisms are required at network nodes, especially at gateways or routers, where many different data flows often pass through. The scheduler is responsible for serving packets of the selected flow and deciding which packet will be served next. Here, a flow is understood as a set of packets belonging to the same priority class, or originating from the same source, or having the same source and destination addresses, etc.
In normal state when there is no congestion, packets will be sent as soon as they are delivered. In case of congestion, if QoS assurance methods are not applied, prolonged congestion can cause packet drops, affecting service quality. In some cases, congestion is prolonged and widespread in the network, which can easily lead to the network being "frozen", or many packets being dropped, seriously affecting service quality.
Therefore, in this chapter, in sections 3.2 and 3.3, we introduce some typical network traffic load monitoring techniques to predict and prevent congestion before it occurs through the measure of dropping (removing) packets early when there are signs of impending congestion.
3.1. DropTail method
DropTail is a simple, traditional queue management method based on FIFO mechanism. All incoming packets are placed in the queue, when the queue is full, the later packets are dropped.
Due to its simplicity and ease of implementation, DropTail has been used for many years on Internet router systems. However, this algorithm has the following disadvantages:
− Cannot avoid the phenomenon of “Lock out”: Occurs when 1 or several traffic streams monopolize the queue, making packets of other connections unable to pass through the router. This phenomenon greatly affects reliable transmission protocols such as TCP. According to the anti-congestion algorithm, when locked out, the TCP connection stream will reduce the window size and reduce the packet transmission speed exponentially.
− Can cause Global Synchronization: This is the result of a severe “Lock out” phenomenon. Some neighboring routers have their queues monopolized by a number of connections, causing a series of other TCP connections to be unable to pass through and simultaneously reducing the transmission speed. After those monopolized connections are temporarily suspended,
Once the queue is cleared, it takes a considerable amount of time for TCP connections to return to their original speed.
− Full Queue phenomenon: Data transmitted on the Internet often has an explosion, packets arriving at the router are often in clusters rather than in turn. Therefore, the operating mechanism of DropTail makes the queue easily full for a long period of time, leading to the average delay time of large packets. To avoid this phenomenon, with DropTail, the only way is to increase the router's buffer, this method is very expensive and ineffective.
− No QoS guarantee: With the DropTail mechanism, there is no way to prioritize important packets to be transmitted through the router earlier when all are in the queue. Meanwhile, with multimedia communication, ensuring connection and stable speed is extremely important and the DropTail algorithm cannot satisfy.
The problem of choosing the buffer size of the routers in the network is to “absorb” short bursts of traffic without causing too much queuing delay. This is necessary in bursty data transmission. The queue size determines the size of the packet bursts (traffic spikes) that we want to be able to transmit without being dropped at the routers.
In IP-based application networks, packet dropping is an important mechanism for indirectly reporting congestion to end stations. A solution that prevents router queues from filling up while reducing the packet drop rate is called dynamic queue management.
3.2. Random elimination method – RED
3.2.1 Overview
RED (Random Early Detection of congestion; Random Early Drop) is one of the first AQM algorithms proposed in 1993 by Sally Floyd and Van Jacobson, two scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the University of California, USA. Due to its outstanding advantages compared to previous queue management algorithms, RED has been widely installed and deployed on the Internet.
The most fundamental point of their work is that the most effective place to detect congestion and react to it is at the gateway or router.
Source entities (senders) can also do this by estimating end-to-end delay, throughput variability, or the rate of packet retransmissions due to drop. However, the sender and receiver view of a particular connection cannot tell which gateways on the network are congested, and cannot distinguish between propagation delay and queuing delay. Only the gateway has a true view of the state of the queue, the link share of the connections passing through it at any given time, and the quality of service requirements of the
traffic flows. The RED gateway monitors the average queue length, which detects early signs of impending congestion (average queue length exceeding a predetermined threshold) and reacts appropriately in one of two ways:
− Drop incoming packets with a certain probability, to indirectly inform the source of congestion, the source needs to reduce the transmission rate to keep the queue from filling up, maintaining the ability to absorb incoming traffic spikes.
− Mark “congestion” with a certain probability in the ECN field in the header of TCP packets to notify the source (the receiving entity will copy this bit into the acknowledgement packet).
Figure 3. 1 RED algorithm
The main goal of RED is to avoid congestion by keeping the average queue size within a sufficiently small and stable region, which also means keeping the queuing delay sufficiently small and stable. Achieving this goal also helps: avoid global synchronization, not resist bursty traffic flows (i.e. flows with low average throughput but high volatility), and maintain an upper bound on the average queue size even in the absence of cooperation from transport layer protocols.
To achieve the above goals, RED gateways must do the following:
− The first is to detect congestion early and react appropriately to keep the average queue size small enough to keep the network operating in the low latency, high throughput region, while still allowing the queue size to fluctuate within a certain range to absorb short-term fluctuations. As discussed above, the gateway is the most appropriate place to detect congestion and is also the most appropriate place to decide which specific connection to report congestion to.
− The second thing is to notify the source of congestion. This is done by marking and notifying the source to reduce traffic. Normally the RED gateway will randomly drop packets. However, if congestion
If congestion is detected before the queue is full, it should be combined with packet marking to signal congestion. The RED gateway has two options: drop or mark; where marking is done by marking the ECN field of the packet with a certain probability, to signal the source to reduce the traffic entering the network.
− An important goal that RED gateways need to achieve is to avoid global synchronization and not to resist traffic flows that have a sudden characteristic. Global synchronization occurs when all connections simultaneously reduce their transmission window size, leading to a severe drop in throughput at the same time. On the other hand, Drop Tail or Random Drop strategies are very sensitive to sudden flows; that is, the gateway queue will often overflow when packets from these flows arrive. To avoid these two phenomena, gateways can use special algorithms to detect congestion and decide which connections will be notified of congestion at the gateway. The RED gateway randomly selects incoming packets to mark; with this method, the probability of marking a packet from a particular connection is proportional to the connection's shared bandwidth at the gateway.
− Another goal is to control the average queue size even without cooperation from the source entities. This can be done by dropping packets when the average size exceeds an upper threshold (instead of marking it). This approach is necessary in cases where most connections have transmission times that are less than the round-trip time, or where the source entities are not able to reduce traffic in response to marking or dropping packets (such as UDP flows).
3.2.2 Algorithm
This section describes the algorithm for RED gateways. RED gateways calculate the average queue size using a low-pass filter. This average queue size is compared with two thresholds: minth and maxth. When the average queue size is less than the lower threshold, no incoming packets are marked or dropped; when the average queue size is greater than the upper threshold, all incoming packets are dropped. When the average queue size is between minth and maxth, each incoming packet is marked or dropped with a probability pa, where pa is a function of the average queue size avg; the probability of marking or dropping a packet for a particular connection is proportional to the bandwidth share of that connection at the gateway. The general algorithm for a RED gateway is described as follows: [5]
For each packet arrival
Caculate the average queue size avg If minth ≤ avg < maxth
div.maincontent .s1 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .s2 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .p { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; margin:0pt; }
div.maincontent p { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; margin:0pt; }
div.maincontent .s3 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s4 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s5 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s6 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s7 { color: black; font-family:Wingdings; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s8 { color: black; font-family:Arial, sans-serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .s9 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s10 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 9pt; vertical-align: 6pt; }
div.maincontent .s11 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 13pt; }
div.maincontent .s12 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 10pt; }
div.maincontent .s13 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-d
Texting
Phone Link | Advanced Paging | 15 | TOT | 1990 | Cancel the division annual revenue share 1997 | |
Page Phone | Hutchison | 15 | TOT | 1990 | ||
World Page | World Page | 15 | TOT | 1994 | ||
Digital | Packlink | 15 | CAT | 1990 | ||
Alpha- numbers | Lenso | 25 | CAT | 1990 | Modify 1995 | |
CT2 | Fonepiont | Phone Point | 10 | TOT | 1991 | tyrant 1998 |
Enter route trunking | World Radio | United | 15 | CAT | 1992 | |
Data whether dynamic | Nework Consultant | 20 | CAT | 1994 |
One of the policy issues that the National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) will have to address is the new rules on foreign investment and ownership. The new Telecommunications Law appears to create a foreign ownership ceiling of 25%. This is higher than the WTO commitments (which cap it at 20%) but much lower than the current situation where foreign operators such as CP Orange and Hutchison have 49% ownership. It is also lower than that of other countries in the region.
Table 1.7 Five contracts with the largest revenue
Company
Contract term copper | Expiration time | Revenue portion paid to business state industry | |
Telecom Asia (landline, Bangkok) | 25 years | 2016 | 16% |
TT&T (fixed, the conscious) | 25 years | 2016 | 43.1% |
AIS (mobile) | 25 years | 2016 | 25% |
TAC (mobile) | 27 years | 2018 | 20% |
Shin Satellite | 30 years | 2021 | 10.5% |
ITU Source
Foreign ownership
expected and current
49% 49%
30%
Expected limit 25%
18%
20%
12%
Company
Thailand
Foreign Partners
TT&T
TA
AIS DTAC
CP
Orange
Taiwan
TT&T Verzion SingTel Telenor Orange Hutchison
Level of water ownership allowed
international service
49%
49%
40%
30%
25%
Thailand Malaysia Philippines India Korea
Figure 1.6 Foreign Ownership of Telecommunications in Thailand
outside;
But there are also some problems that arise, including:
- Looking for Thai investors to sell to foreign investors
- Convince local investors to take on a large portion of the investment
if the company has to be refinanced;
- Dealing with the consequences of the transfer.
The equitization of SOEs, TOTs and CATs is another victim of the above mentioned university policy paralysis. Although the Ministry of Transport and the MoTC gave the green light for equitization in May 1999, little progress has been made. One of the bottlenecks has been the chaotic transfer process.
In theory, the equitization process is carried out in two phases: Phase 1: SOE corporatization according to company law;
Phase 2: Equitization, through the establishment of joint stock companies, sales to strategic partners and IPOs to reduce government holdings below 30%.
The current uncertainty about foreign ownership restrictions is affecting the search for strategic partners. Some foreign investors will be willing to make large capital investments without securing a controlling interest in the company.
1.4.2. Lessons for Vietnam:
Through the reality of receiving FDI capital at home and abroad, we have drawn the following conclusions:
learned many useful lessons.
1.4.2.1. Choosing technology suitable for the conditions and management level of our country
The document of the 9th National Congress of our Party also reaffirmed: "Diversify the state capitalist economy in the forms of joint ventures and associations between the state economy and domestic and foreign private capitalist economies, bringing practical benefits to investors and businesses. Create favorable conditions for the economy with foreign investment capital to develop smoothly, focusing on exports, building economic and social infrastructure associated with attracting modern technology, creating more jobs. Improve the economic and legal environment to strongly attract foreign investment capital".
Through FDI, we have received many advanced technologies and machinery that can somewhat keep up with other countries in the region. Although the technology level is not high, it is suitable for our management capacity and conditions.
FDI capital is closely linked to the interests of foreign investors in production and business activities in our country, so investors often focus on bringing advanced technologies to bring high labor productivity, compete with domestic products to gain high profits. But thanks to that, our country also attracts many modern equipment and technologies, contributing to improving the production capacity of existing facilities, creating new production capacity. Moreover, the appearance of foreign enterprises with superior techniques and technologies creates a competitive pressure forcing domestic enterprises to improve technology and techniques, contributing to improving the general level of the national economy. In addition, due to the influence of direct investment as a form of capital import