The influence of Indian culture on Chinese Buddhist architecture and sculpture - 14

One thing that perhaps needs to be explained here is why both masculine and feminine pronouns have been used when referring to Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. Through the remaining artistic paintings and statues, from the Tang Dynasty (618-907) onwards, Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara was presented in a male form. However, starting from the early Song Dynasty (960-1279) around the 11th century, some believers saw him as a goddess and images of a Guanyin Bodhisattva were created by Chinese artists. The transformation of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara into a female form was considered to be completed during the Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368). From the Ming Dynasty onwards, that is, around the 15th century, Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara appeared entirely in a female form. However, no matter how much the female image of Avalokiteshvara pervades literature and art, conservative Buddhist clergy still refuse to recognize her in a female form. Even today, images of Avalokiteshvara are worshiped in monasteries.

22 Scholar Todd Lewis has used this concept in his study of the Newar Buddhist cult of Avalokitesvara (known here as Karunamaya). He defines localization as “the dialectical process by which a religious tradition is integrated into a region or ethnic group living together in a socio-economic community and having its own cultural life” (Lewis 1993:150). While “Greater Traditions” provide clear spiritual direction for followers, those close to charismatic religious leaders, including formal rules for integration and mission, history often shows the opposite, that the survival of religious traditions has been no less related to the contributions of many different popular voices, through which later followers have access to doctrinal lenses, contextualized teachings, and folk metaphors. To study the issue of “religious localization” is to dig deep to expose the fundamental reasons why there is a choice from the whole so that this tradition develops in accordance with the “local logic” of a particular region and time” (Lewis 1993:150).

Buddhist monasteries continued to be built according to the iconic model of the Tang Dynasty 23 .

When we have some knowledge of the Indian representation of Avalokitesvara, it is difficult to judge to what extent the Chinese Avalokitesvara is a mere imitation of an existing Indian model or a complete creation. The second and especially important reason is that while conducting such an investigation, one point stands out most clearly: In all Indian artistic representations, the Bodhisattva is never represented in a female form.

The creation of images of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva in China began very early after the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Different stages in the evolution of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva's image in India also occurred in China but with many innovations and creations. Starting with the creation of new images of Avalokitesvara such as the Water-Moon Avalokitesvara (androgynous) in the 10th century, Chinese artists gradually shifted to depicting the Bodhisattva in a female form since the Song Dynasty (960-1279). By the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) or perhaps earlier, there appeared sets of paintings of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with five, thirty-two or fifty-three different styles. There is also a set of paintings called Thirty-three Images of Kannon in Sino-Japanese Buddhist Art of the Kamakura Period (1185-1333) 2 4 . Different styles in the images

23 Paul Harrison questions the traditional use of the term “celestial bodhisattvas” by Snellgrove (1986), who continues the tradition of Har Dayal (1932), Ling (1976), Bashan (1981), and Robinson & Johnson (1982), in an unpublished paper, “Mañjuśrī and the Cult of Celestial Bodhisattvas,” presented at a conference at the University of Texas, Austin in October 1996. He objects to the imposition of the latter on the former, arguing that it is an historical misnomer: what the bodhisattva ideal has achieved is superimposed on its original motivation. He also argues that “Mahasattva” is simply another title for bodhisattva, not an adjective referring to a particular group of bodhisattvas residing in the celestial realm. He acknowledges that most Buddhists believe in the existence of great bodhisattvas and in their succession or different levels of attainment. “However, such beliefs reflect purely quantitative rather than categorical distinctions and certainly not a qualitative distinction between two distinct types of bodhisattvas, one earthly and one celestial, between whom there is a clear line of demarcation” (Harrison 1996:11).

24 The thirty-three images of Avalokiteshvara are presented as: (1) Avalokiteshvara with a willow branch, (2) Standing on a dragon's head, (3) Holding a scripture, (4) In a circle of light, (5) Sitting in a royal posture, (6) White-robed Avalokiteshvara, (7) Leaning on a lotus flower, (8)

The images may have been illustrated by the artists in the sense of the thirty-three incarnations of Avalokitesvara in the Lotus Sutra or the thirty-two in the Shurangama Sutra. However, in reality, these paintings were not exactly the same as described in the sutras. Besides the paintings of Water Moon (No. 12) and White-Robed Avalokitesvara (No. 6), which are very famous in Chinese art but have no connection to any sutra origin, three other paintings related to the legend of her are Avalokitesvara Jialan (No. 10), Scam-dwelling (No. 25), and Ma Langfu (Mr. Ma's Wife, No. 28) 25 . Although we cannot conclude that the feminization of Avalokitesvara was done by the artists, we cannot deny that they have contributed greatly to the popularization of this trend. The artist in the process of painting or sculpting a female Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva must certainly reflect faithfully the contemporary public perception of the Bodhisattva. In this sense, art is not only an indicator but also an agent of change.

Looking at the waterfall, (9) Giving medicine, (10) Avalokiteshvara, (11) Brahma, (12) Water Moon, (13) One Leaf, (14) Blue neck, (15) Overview of the heavens, (16) Prolongation of life, (17) Pearl, (18) Stone door, (19) Tranquility, (20) Subtle (Anu), (21) Abhetti, (22) Parnasvari, (23) Vaidurya, (24) Avalokiteshvara Tara, (25) Avalokiteshvara residing in the shell, (26) Six stages, (27) Great Compassion, (28) Horse-wolf, (29) Anjali (30) Suchness, (31) Non-duality, (32) Lotus-hand, and (33) Watering (Goto 1958:170-82). He used the Butsuzo-zu-I (Illustrated Dictionary of Buddhist Images), a woodblock from the Edo period , as his primary source. The later depictions of the Avalokitesvara image were reprinted by Balei Hemmi (1960: 228-32). According to Louis Frédéric, “Other forms of these 33 Avalokitesvara images appeared relatively later, most of them only after the Kamakura period (1333). Some of these images were again presented in the form of paintings, while the remaining subjects did not have much appeal to artists” (1995: 157-62). Although some individual forms also appear in medieval collections of Japanese paintings, such as the Besson Zakkhi by Shinkaku (fl. 1117-1180), or the Kakuzensho by Kakuzen (b. 1144), it is not until later that all thirty-three forms are considered to be part of a single collection that they were fully accepted. This list includes references to parables from the Lotus Sutra, esoteric texts, and Chinese folk legends about Avalokitesvara. It should also be noted that some of these thirty-three forms of Avalokitesvara are shown seated on a stone table. Cornelius discusses these forms in Chapter 6 of his 1971 work “ A Study of the Paintings of the Water-Moon Kuan Yin .” Also read Marilyn Leidig Gridley’s “ Chinese Buddhist Sculpture under the Liao ” (1993:100) on this subject.

25 “Avalokitesvara Dwelling in a Clam” refers to a historical story that occurred during the reign of Emperor Wenzong of the Tang Dynasty. This emperor loved to eat clams, but in the first month of the year 836, the imperial official was unable to pry open a clam.

a large clam. Then, after praying, the clam opened and inside it was a statue of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva. He asked the famous Zen master Duy Chanh of the time about the meaning of this and after being explained, he decided to give up the habit of eating clams. At the same time, the emperor also ordered all the monasteries in China to erect statues of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva (Fo-tsu t'ung chi, Ch'uan 41. T 49:384b-c). Avalokitesvara Jia Lam and Ma Lang Phu are also folk legends related to a woman who lived in the 9th century in China,

But the question arises: why did the gender change of Avalokitesvara occur only in China? This is a question that may never have a satisfactory answer. However, there are at least two factors that we cannot ignore. First, this issue is related to Chinese culture and religion. Second, there is the relative scarcity of “history” of Avalokitesvara in Buddhist scriptures. It is precisely this great lack of legends related to the Bodhisattva that made it easier to create legends about him in China. Moreover, these legends were in some ways created according to the Chinese view of the gods and thus, met the religious needs of the general public.

3.5. CONCLUSION

Decorative sculpture is considered one of the most important factors that create beauty for the construction. Starting from the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Chinese Buddhist architecture used sculpture, painting, calligraphy, and stone carving combined with architecture to create an architectural art complex, starting the excavation of stone caves to worship Buddha, creating a new architectural style, synthesizing all the above mentioned artistic elements, from then on this architectural style has had a profound influence and is mostly in ancient and modern Buddhist architectural works. Therefore, Buddhist temples, Buddha towers, Sutra halls, Stone caves, etc.

Going through the ancient history of China, the achievements of Chinese art and architecture cannot fail to mention Chinese Buddhist decorative sculpture. Until today, the oldest and earliest surviving Buddhist sculptures, patterns, Buddha and Bodhisattva statues, Thien Long Bat Bo Than Congregation, etc., murals, stone carvings are all rare works passed down through generations and national treasures.

of Chinese Buddhist architecture in particular and cultural architecture in general, is also a rare phenomenon of one of the world's ancient decorative sculpture architectures.

CONCLUDE

1. The geographical location and favorable natural conditions have created a "unique" India. Abundant water resources, fertile alluvial soil from the two rivers Indus and Ganges, temperate climate, convenient location for domestic and international exchanges, this land has met all the ideal conditions for an early and great civilization of mankind. The civilization of the Indus River basin was imbued with ideas and art forms that were later considered the typical identity of India. Indian culture and civilization with its brilliant achievements have affirmed its strong influence on regional cultures through one of its representatives, Buddhism.

2. China is located on the Silk Road. Since the early years of the Common Era, Buddhism was invited to China, Buddhism has gone through many ups and downs of history. Like the later waves covering the previous waves, the later stages of Buddhism always inherit and promote the achievements of the previous stage of Buddhism, although the level of intensity is different. It can be said that Chinese culture in general and Chinese Buddhist architecture in particular since the introduction of Buddhism, on the one hand, enrich the traditional cultural content, on the other hand, over a long period of time, together with Confucianism and Taoism, debate and integrate. Buddhism has become one of the three indispensable parts that combine to create Chinese culture. Combined with traditional Chinese culture, Chinese Buddhist architecture, decorative sculpture and painting since the introduction of Indian Buddhism have added a new vitality, increased new forms and content, mutually permeated and harmonized into a Buddhist artistic heritage. Buddhist architectural art images express the cultural connotation and historical development of Chinese Buddhism.

3. When studying the influence of Indian culture on Chinese Buddhist architecture and sculpture in the context of current cultural exchange and integration, it can be seen that China has creatively absorbed new cultural elements of Indian Buddhism to enrich the traditional cultural identity of China in general and to enrich the content of architectural and sculptural values ​​such as cave temples, pagodas, Buddhist towers, Buddha statues, Bodhisattva statues, Arhat statues, statues of eminent monks, statues of ghosts and gods, historical paintings of Buddha, previous lives of Buddha, etc. in particular. On the other hand, new cultural elements of Indian Buddhism have enriched the artistic imagination of ancient painters, promoting the development of the form and skillful skills of Chinese painting art.

4. Indian Buddhism helps maintain and preserve traditional Chinese cultural elements. When Buddhism in India did not accept Buddhist disciples' contact with music, singing, and chanting, after being transmitted to China, influenced by traditional Chinese culture, Buddhism gradually absorbed the art form of music, becoming one of the important means in spreading the Dharma. The image of Bodhisattva in Indian Buddhism is originally a man, but when Buddhism entered China and mixed with indigenous traditional culture, traditional cultural elements penetrated deeply and influenced the art of sculpture. At this time in China, the image of Bodhisattva is no longer a man but a woman. The image of a woman makes it closer to the people and easier to enter the subconscious of the people... It can be said that China has absorbed new cultural elements to enrich its traditional culture, actively promoting indigenous cultural elements when combined with cultures from outside, creating a harmony and balance between traditional culture and new cultural flows.