What? Types of emotions, emotional expressions through facial expressions, gestures, relationships and effects of emotions on individual perception, consciousness and behavior... Rudich PA (1986) [82], in the book "Sports Psychology", mentioned the definition and basic characteristics of emotions, the relationship between emotions and needs, the role of emotions in human life, the physiological basis of emotions, the external features and expressions of emotions through facial expressions... In the work " Psychology (principles and uses)", Stephen Worchel - Wayne Shebilsue (2007) [88], mentioned a series of issues about emotions, from finding a common definition of emotions, to introducing a series of psychological theories about emotions, such as the Jemce - Langer theory of emotions and arguing that the appearance of emotions is the result of external influences, of internal changes in the range of attention and inattention. Inheriting and developing Darwin's concept of emotion, Freud S. (2002) argued that emotion originates from sexual and instinctive energies. The synthesis of feelings associated with those changes is the emotional state. According to James, emotion is associated with a wide range of peripheral changes, while Langer believes that emotion is associated with the state of nerve distribution and blood vessel permeability; Canon-Bar theory; cognitive theories, somatic theories of emotion, Tomkins's (1962) feedback theory, later deepened by Izard and Ekman (1977), Friesen (1971) and is still an active field of research...
* Research on emotions as a driving force for individuals in their activities and in life
Emotion as a psychological motivation is mentioned in most of the research works on individual psychology, developmental psychology. From the experiments of Skinner B. (1953), Maslow A. (1970), Strongman KT (1987), Carrol E. Izard (1992), Maurice Reuchlin (1995), Keith Oatley & Fennifer Jenkins M. (1995), Goderfroid (1998), Freud S. (2002), Nicky Hayes (2005), Helen Greathead (2007), Daniel Goleman (2002, 2015), James L. Gibson (2011), Virender Kapoor (2012), Richard J. Gerrig and Philip G. Zimbardo (2003),…
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In the above works, emotions are seen as a driving force that motivates individuals to act. Therefore, the problem is how to maintain, satisfy or strengthen individual emotions. If Freud S. attributes emotions to the field of unconscious motivation, associated with physical factors and the need to be satisfied (2002) [cited in 84], B. Skinner [146] and behavioral psychologists focus on the aspect of social impact on emotional behaviors. Accordingly, individual emotional behaviors are determined by positive, negative reinforcement or punishment (1953).
In the work “Psychology and Life ”, Richard J. Gerrig and Philip Zimbardo G. [79] focus on the functions of emotions on individual cognition and behavior, emphasizing the function of action motivation and the function of regulating social interaction. Emotions are likened to social glue or the agent for individuals to distance themselves from and abandon society. In particular, emotions are both the driving force and the guide for individual cognitive activities (2013).
In summary: in the direction of research on emotions as psychological phenomena that motivate individuals in activities, scientists have studied issues of emotional definition, expression, stability, appearance and origin of emotions, classification of emotions and the influence of individual psycho-physiological factors on emotions and the influence of emotions on individual activities. It is assumed that emotions originate from sexual energy and instincts. The synthesis of feelings associated with those changes is the emotional state. Emotions are associated with a wide range of peripheral changes and emotions are associated with the state of nerve distribution and blood vessel permeability.
According to the research direction of emotions as motivation, emotions are considered as a driving force that motivates individuals to act. Therefore, the problem is how to maintain, satisfy or strengthen individual emotions and there is a need for stimuli to improve negative emotions and increase positive emotions to promote human activities.
1.1.2. Research on emotional management
In the emotional intelligence literature, which includes factors such as recognizing and controlling one's own and others' emotions, there is also research on emotion management. For example, Fischer, Manstead, Evers, Timmers & Valk (2004) [cited 33] studied emotion management in different contexts. Erber, Wegner and Therriault (1996) [130] conducted experiments on enhancing or inhibiting emotions to gain experience and express emotions that they believed would facilitate performance in a particular situation. Diamond & Aspinwall (2003) concluded that good or bad emotions are not constant and that the motivation to regulate emotions can only be understood in the specific context in which emotions occur. Hochschild (1983) pointed out that emotional templates (which are built on rules for displaying emotions and possibly emotional experiences in a given situation) motivate emotion management. Studies by Rime et al. (1991), indicate that social sharing not only plays an important role in providing information but can serve important psychological and social functions. Social sharing, can reduce physical distance and interpersonal characteristics and contribute to the development of close relationships. Thoits (1984), Collins and Miller (1994) found that people who share their emotions and feelings with others are more likely to be emotional than those who keep them to themselves. Studies by Zech & Rime (1996) found that emotional sharing is rated as more meaningful and enjoyable than objective and descriptive talk.
In terms of research on rumination or emotional suppression, Nolen-Hoeksema, McBride, and Larsen (1997) [cited 33]; Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow (1993) concluded that rumination on anger, guilt, and anxious thoughts is associated with the generation of stronger emotions [80]. Kopel & Arkowitz (1974) [135] studied the suppression of pain expressions, Wegner (1994) studied the suppression of painful thoughts and found a reduction in self-reported feelings. McCanne and Anderson (1987) [143]
showed that suppression of emotional expression while pleasant or unpleasant emotional conditions impaired the participants' ability to feel the corresponding emotions. The cognitive deficits for expressive suppression come from a study by Ginbe, Krull, and Pelham (1988) that showed that gaze suppression impaired cognitive performance. Richards and Gross (1999) showed that suppression of emotional expression impaired memory for information encountered during the suppression period. However, there is little evidence that suppression of spontaneous emotional expression leads to impairments in emotional experience and physiological arousal beyond manipulations of pain expression.
Carstensen, Gottman, and Levenson (1995), Levenson, Carstensen, and Gottman (1994), and colleagues have shown that marital satisfaction increases with reduced negative emotional expression. Successfully modifying facial expressions of emotion may be important in human social and marital relationships, but it does little to reduce a person's negative emotions [cited in 33].
Lazarus and Alfert (1964) showed that reappraisal is an effective way to reduce negative emotions as well as the accompanying physiological arousal. Studies by Kramer and colleagues showed that reappraisal does not consume cognitive resources, nor does it impair memory. In psychological communication (Bucci, 1995) the accumulation of unexpressed emotions has been linked to mental and physical disorders [citation 61].
Michelle Sams (2010) studied the emotion management model for the US military, the author argued: Emotion management may be particularly important for effective military leadership in certain areas of operations. This study proposes an emotion management model to provide a basis for training military leaders. This model integrates several areas of emotion research, including: emotion recognition, emotion regulation, and emotion expression. Specified in this model are four key areas that can potentially be enhanced through training interventions, including 1) emotional knowledge,
2) emotional skills, 3) situational moderators, and 4) emotional performance domains. The model also notes the importance of considering individual differences in developing emotion management training, as well as organizational support for this type of training initiative. Recommendations regarding the components of this model are proposed to enhance theoretical understanding of emotion management concepts, identify directions for future research, and identify implications for leaders in emotion management. Finally, existing emotion management skills training programs are reviewed with respect to the content areas described in the model [142].
Donma M. Rice (2006), studying the emotional testing model for application to military combat practice and its application to military education, the author mentioned the relationship between intelligence and emotions, and how soldiers manage their emotions [129].
The authors of research on emotion management have focused on identifying emotional expressions and the causes of those emotions.
1.1.3. Research on emotional management skills
Emotional management skills are one of the life skills that govern all human activities. Due to its important role, many psychologists have been interested in researching this issue on many different levels. In general, research on emotional management skills can be summarized according to the following approaches:
* Research on emotional management skills as a basic element and component of emotional intelligence.
Emotional intelligence is a new psychological phenomenon that emerged in the late 20th century. The discovery of emotional intelligence has changed traditional notions of intelligence and has had a broad and powerful impact on many different areas of life.
The research movement on emotional intelligence originated and developed most strongly in the US with outstanding psychologists such as Salovey and Mayer.
The authors have conceived: Emotional intelligence includes the ability to correctly receive, evaluate and express emotions, the ability to evaluate and classify emotions to help guide thinking, the ability to understand and control, and orient emotions to increase emotional and intellectual development [58, p.66].
In a book published in 1996, H.Steve gave a definition similar to the above authors, according to which: "Emotional intelligence is a combination of natural emotional sensitivity and self-taught emotional management skills, to help people achieve happiness in life" [cited in 36, p.76]. In contrast to the view of emotional intelligence as purely a capacity, the view of emotional intelligence as a combination or mixture is typically represented by Bar-On (1997). In his doctoral thesis, Bar-On (1985) placed emotional intelligence within the scope of separation theory, proposing the Well-being model (1997) with the intention of answering the question: "Why is one person more likely to succeed in life than others?". The author identifies five broad functional areas relevant to success in life: Skills to master one's emotions; interpersonal emotional control skills; adaptability; emotional control; general mood [126].
Along with the above approach, Goleman's (1995) concept is widely known. Goleman said: "Emotional intelligence includes the abilities: self-control, control, enthusiasm and self-motivation" [12, p.42]. In 2007, Goleman added 5 basic emotional and social abilities: 1) understanding one's emotions; 2) managing emotions; 3) self-motivation; 4) recognizing other people's emotions; 5) handling relationships [16].
Thus, in general, it can be said that there are three typical representatives who have deeply studied emotional intelligence under different approaches, in which Bar-On R. approaches emotional intelligence from the perspective of personality; Salovey and Mayer study from the perspective of cognition; Daniel Goleman approaches from the perspective of work efficiency. The authors all share the view that emotional management is one of the components of emotional intelligence. In this thesis, we approach emotional management from the perspective of Daniel Goleman.
* Research on emotion management skills as a communication skill
Soviet psychologists have made important contributions to the study of communication in general and communication skills in particular, especially pedagogical communication skills. Some prominent authors in this trend include: Cubanova, Dakharo, Leonchiev, etc. Although the authors' concepts of the communication skills system are not the same, they agree that self-control skills - the skills of emotional and behavioral autonomy are indispensable skills in communication to ensure effective communication [cited in 90, p.36].
In American Psychology, many authors research the art of communication, communication skills in management, in the business field. Specifically:
Allan Pease (1994), author of the book "Body language - the meaning of gestures in communication" believes that non-verbal communication is a complex process of human influence, movements, gestures, facial expressions... have a certain meaning [1].
Torrington et al. (2004), the authors of many books on human resource management, have studied communication in management and business, analyzing common forms of contact between managers and those being managed, from which managers need to have communication skills with subordinates [148].
* Studies on building scales and questionnaires to determine emotional management skills
Typical in this research direction is the research work of the following authors: Emotion Control Questionnaire (ECQ2) by Roger D. and Najarian B. (1989). The questionnaire consists of 56 questions (items) divided into 4 sections (each section has 14 questions) aimed at 4 issues: measuring the level of unpleasant emotions caused by events, assessing the experience of controlling emotions, controlling impulsive emotions and controlling benign emotions [cited in 123, p.54].
Bar-On R. EQ I (Emotional Quotiet Inventory, 1997) checklist. This scale refers to stress control and management, including skills such as: problem assessment
At the same time, Elaine K. Williams and Dianne L. Chambless developed a scale of 42 items divided into four subscales. The first subscale included 8 questions to measure anger management skills, the second subscale included 8 questions to measure sadness management skills, the third subscale included 13 questions to measure anxiety management skills, and the fourth subscale included 13 questions to measure positive emotion management skills [cited in 126].
Additionally, in 1999, Boyatsis developed the ECQ (Emotio Competency Inventory) test, which was designed as a self-assessment and other-assessment test. This test examines emotion management skills quite broadly and includes other social skills [cited in 61].
Nowadays, another scale is widely used in research on emotional intelligence, which is the MEIS scale of Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2000) designed to measure 4 factors that make up EI (Emotional Intelligence), which mentions the ability to manage emotions (the 4th branch) (quoted by Nguyen Cong Khanh) [58].
In general, this research trend is supported by many authors and applied in many countries around the world. However, these scales all aim to determine the most general emotion management skills, there is no scale to evaluate an emotion management skill in a specific field.
1.2. Research works in Vietnam related to the thesis topic
1.2.1. Research on emotions
In psychology, the study of emotions is always a complex issue, because it is the subject of research of many interdisciplinary sciences such as: Social Psychology, Personality Psychology, Medical Psychology, Psychiatry... The issue of emotions has been studied by many psychologists in Vietnam, typically: Authors Vu Dung (2008), Do Manh Ton (2006), Nguyen Quang Uan (2004), Ngo Cong Hoan (2003), Nguyen Huy Tu (2003), Nguyen Khac Vien (2003), Nguyen Ngoc Phu (1998), Nguyen Dinh Sang (2015)...