language , non-verbal behavior, other events such as information, communication properties, connections...) and mental factors (group psychology - perception, attention, memory, attitude, work experience, emotions, style... and individual psychological phenomena ) with pedagogically organized form and structure, whose content contains certain connections to past experiences and experiences currently being mobilized by the learner. It is a unified body of psychological, social, pedagogical, physical , biological factors ... objective to the learner, but touching or influencing the subjective psychological world inside the learner. It has an intermediary role and value in the relationship between the learning subject and the learning problem, between that subject and the teacher, between individual learners if in this context they are being organized according to common learning goals and tasks.
Thus, the typical technique that teachers use in the stage of designing the learning environment for learners, to put them in the best activated state (in terms of experience , motivation , and will to learn) to serve the process of exploration and discovery (mainly by rational thinking) is to design and organize teaching situations. Depending on the specific teaching objectives and specific learning content, teachers can plan and create the following types of teaching situations in class: cognitively oriented situations, emotionally oriented situations, motor-oriented situations, communicatively oriented situations, or selectively oriented situations.
- Transfer teaching situations into problem situations for learners :
Creating teaching situations is a completely proactive task of the teacher . However, the pedagogical value and the real effect of these situations depend a lot on the psychological state and experience of each individual learner. In other words, there is a long distance from teaching situations to problem situations and not many learners can bridge it, because of the disparity between the learner 's experience and the factors contained in the teaching situation. Thus, the role of the teacher in transforming teaching situations into problem situations for learners is not only about designing teaching situations, but also depends on how to organize those situations so that learners can find the connection between what they already have and know with the factors in the current teaching environment. The real effectiveness of evoking problem situations depends a lot on the pedagogical capacity of each person, but can also be improved through practice. Mainly
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techniques of using language, non-verbal elements, the combination of modern teaching aids ... especially, creating an environment with multi-dimensional impact to activate the most senses of learners , helping them to mobilize their maximum experience and available potential into the teaching situation. And only then will the teaching situation truly become the learner's own problem, requiring great physical and intellectual efforts to solve the problem and achieve the learning goal.
- Learners research to solve learning tasks :
Organizing for learners to research and solve learning tasks can be carried out in two forms: individual work and group work. However, here, the importance of multi-dimensional interaction in the teaching and learning process is emphasized, so we only examine learners' learning in this teaching model in the form of group work.
Once learners have become aware of the problematic nature of the teaching content, they work in small groups to solve those problems in a spirit of cooperation , sharing experiences, ideas , emotions, and personal values towards a common learning goal that has been clarified.
In each learning group, the interaction (mainly here is the interaction between learners - learners, learners - teaching environment) takes place relatively complex and not in a certain type. Initially, there is often an interaction between the learners themselves and their available experience and knowledge , interaction between learners and learning materials to find solutions for the problems that individuals feel and the common tasks of the whole group.
Next, there is interaction between learners to discuss and share solutions or directions for solving problems. Collaboration to find a common solution or clarify the learning task makes the next learning process of learners objective and scientific. The personal color in the solution that learners unanimously choose is almost gone, but there is only positive dependence between group members to aim at solving learning problems in the direction they have chosen.
The next step in this process of handling the situation can be independent interaction (interaction between the learner and the symbol, the learner and the environment) to solve the common problem in an individual form. Or it can still be a form of interaction in the form of cooperation and sharing between members of a group or between a number of
members to solve learning problems. In the process of testing solutions, sometimes new ideas arise because of the awareness of new events that appear. Learners can continue to discuss and evaluate to rebuild their "new theory", develop or adjust to have a more suitable solution.
The search, discovery and adjustment in the process of research and solving learning tasks are typical features of this stage. They are hidden in the form of complex interactions between factors in teaching activities, mainly between learners and the teaching environment. The end of a research and problem-solving process is the time to complete the group's learning task and also the time to open a new activity of presenting the group's research products to the whole class.
- Summary report:
In this stage, the teacher organizes the learning groups to present their research products to the whole class. The solutions and the process of implementing the solutions of the groups are the focus of the exchange between learners in the whole class. The turning of the corners of the process of implementing the solutions of the groups can bring new problems. If the problem appears to be consistent with the learning objectives , it is organized to be implemented according to the applied situation handling sequence. If it is far from the core learning objectives, but has appeal to certain learners , it becomes the starting situation for an internal interaction process within those people, or a collaborative interaction process between learners (working together to solve arising tasks to satisfy the needs of exploration and understanding of individual learners).
Conditions apply:
Nowadays, problem-based teaching is considered an important principle to activating learners . At the same time, it is also the basis to ensure that other requirements are implemented in the teaching and learning process such as appropriateness, learner initiative, creating and maintaining positive emotions in learning, unifying collective and individual characteristics in teaching and learning... Meanwhile, this teaching model is fundamentally built on the problem-based nature of teaching content. Thus, if we only consider the teaching principles, it is enough to conclude that this teaching model needs to be widely applied in school education.
In addition, the situational -research teaching method in general is a characteristic of the learning method by rational thinking. This is a learning method that only humans have. Behavioral methods in animals are only gradually perfected within the limits of species development, although animals also regularly practice, apply, experience, and reproduce those methods in their individual lives. Moreover, for adult learners such as university students, the learning method by rational thinking is even more clearly expressed and is an indicator of distinction from the learning methods of learners at lower levels of education.
Thus, the case study teaching method in general and the above-mentioned design teaching model in particular need to be regularly applied in all subject curricula and all learners, whether at high school or university level. However, not everyone or any educational content can design and create problematic situations for learners. To successfully implement this teaching model in practice, teachers need to have the skills or be trained in the following teaching techniques: techniques for designing teaching situations, techniques for stimulating learners' interest in learning , techniques for organizing learners to interact and discuss in small groups, whole-class discussions (socialized discussions), and problem-solving discussions.
Some main teaching techniques
This is a teaching method that is typical of human learning style, learning by logical thinking and it is most popular in adults. The techniques used to teach using this method can be said to be very diverse and rich. Some basic techniques can be briefly mentioned as follows: technique of designing teaching situations; technique of delegating a problem situation, technique of organizing individual research, technique of organizing group research... Similar to other teaching methods, here we only present two most typical teaching techniques of this teaching method, which are technique of designing teaching situations and technique of organizing student - student interaction in the process of researching and solving problems.
1) Techniques for designing teaching situations
Depending on specific teaching objectives, specific learning content, and even specific teaching conditions , teachers can design and organize the following types of teaching situations in class:
1- Cognitive-oriented situations : This situation is characterized by intelligence and stimulates the cognitive experience or intellectual activity of the learner with paradoxes, new objects or values for the learner , stimulating perception, memory mobilization, reasoning, judgment or direct perceptual actions. This type of situation often has a logical connection with the learning content of the previous lesson or topic, with the recent results achieved by the learner. Thus, to have cognitive-oriented teaching situations, the teacher must know how to combine and find contradictions or paradoxes between the learning problem and the basic knowledge and experience of the learner, or contradictions between the learning problem and a certain event or phenomenon in practice. This is a difficult task that requires the teacher to have professional experience and subtlety in observation to connect or compare the learning content with the basic experience of the learner and the diversity of real life.
2- Emotionally oriented situation : This situation is expressive and rich in emotion.
Aesthetic , ethical, cultural and social factors that are close to the learner , focusing on the learner's experience of evaluating and expressing feelings, stimulating the emergence of attitudes in different directions: surprise, dissatisfaction, admiration, approval, doubt, curiosity, opposition... This type of situation is often associated with the value aspect of the learning content or teaching content elements. The way to create this situation is often simpler than the cognitively oriented situation. Sometimes the problem is created simply from the teacher's evaluation, comment or expression of attitude towards a certain issue related to the learning content. From there, the learner appears a state of sympathy or concern, anxiety. It is this psychological state that leads the learner to engage in research and exploration tasks to clarify the values that are still hidden in them.
3- Dynamic situation : This situation has dynamic movement.
Dynamic, exciting, lively, focusing on the learner's motor experience, stimulating movement, contact, impact behavior, attention movement and cognitive processes such as observation, imagination... We can use modern multimedia technologies, learning materials with vivid representations of complex processes and phenomena to create this type of situation.
4- Communication-oriented situations : This situation simulates certain rituals or behaviors in learning or in life, which have the effect of evoking communication experience, especially language activity experience and communication awareness. The organization of cooperative learning activities in groups, discussion techniques, etc. itself requires learners' communication experience to reach a certain level. Therefore, the above type of situation is often created through participatory and cooperative teaching strategies.
2) Techniques for organizing learner-learner interaction in the group research process
As mentioned, organizing students to study according to this teaching method can be carried out in two forms, individual research and group research. However, to create conformity with the teaching strategy based on interaction; we only mention how to organize students to study in groups. It can be said that the nature of this learning process is cooperation and collaboration between students to solve a learning task set in advance, or initiated by students themselves during the research process. The typical interaction relationship of the learning process of students according to this teaching method is cooperative interaction and collaborative interaction. In addition, there are some other types of interactions that can also be mentioned here such as independent interactions ( self-interaction with symbols or internal interactions), dependent interactions, peer interactions, autonomous interactions, interdependent interactions... However, in some aspects, some of the above-mentioned types of interactions between learners and learners can be placed in one of the two types of cooperative interactions and collaborative interactions. In terms of terminology, we can generally distinguish between these two types of interactions as follows: cooperative learning is the joint efforts of learners to solve a pre-set goal or task. Between learners and learners, there is a relatively close relationship of dependence and attachment (dependence on learning purposes, dependence on rewards, dependence on learning resources, dependence on the roles of individuals, dependence on the learning environment); Collaborative learning is also the joint effort of learners to solve a learning task, but this task is not set in advance but is due to the
arise in the learning process . Learners collaborate to satisfy more personal needs than a mandatory task. Collaborative interaction can also be considered to be at a higher level than cooperative interaction, which is
is due to the learning ideology and voluntary spirit of the learner. In general, the teaching and learning process does not separate each type of interaction between learner and learner (including interaction between teacher and learner and interaction between learner and environment), but combines them so that the process of knowledge assimilation in the learner occurs optimally.
Below are some requirements or principles to promote interactive relationships.
between learners and learners in the process of research and problem solving:
1- Create positive dependence between learners : Positive dependence helps group members try to complete their own work towards a common goal. Encourage and motivate your classmates, share your successes and difficulties in the learning process. To create positive dependence, we can use the following methods: 1/ Create dependence on learning goals; 2/ Dependence on rewards; 3/ Dependence on learning resources; 4/ Dependence on the role of each member in the group ; 5/ Dependence on the operating environment .
2- Organize face-to-face interactions: Face-to-face interactions stimulate communication , sharing of ideas , resources and results. Enhance the feeling and sense of solidarity, belonging and attachment to each other. Attract active participation of members in group activities. Create transparency of opinions, ideas and lead to unified results.
To ensure successful face-to-face interaction, it is necessary to: use groups of about four members; organize learning positions adjacent to and facing each other; use each person's name and make eye contact when working; understand non-verbal language appropriate to the learning situation; encourage learners to ask questions; teach appropriate social and cooperative skills when necessary, corresponding to specific relationships and activities in the group.
3- Enhance responsibility and ensure personal work: each member must participate and contribute to the work and overall success of the group. To ensure good performance of responsibility and personal contribution, it is necessary: each member in the group has a clear role and job and has a certain contribution to the common task; all members care about and encourage each other; each member understands that their own success and the group's success are interdependent.
4- Enhance collaborative learning phases: During the collaborative work process ,
solving learning tasks in a research-style manner, situations often arise,
or new cognitive tasks, it can be relatively far from the original goal or task , but has a high challenge for the intellectual activity of the learner, the challenge of the learning problem and the relatively high learning motivation of the learner urge them to participate in collaborative research phases to solve the arising task. In the collaborative learning process, individuals are often very active, researching to explore the depth of the problem, there is respect and recognition of the capacity between individual learners. For the collaborative learning activities of learners to be highly effective, teachers need to form some specific skills for learners as follows: each person needs to always stay and work closely with the group; know how to keep quiet, speak, speak at the right time, in the right voice, and calmly ; know how to wait to listen to other people's opinions and wait for their turn to express their personal opinions; use the names of all group members correctly; Pay attention to encouragement, listen to each other's comments; learn about other people's difficulties and share experiences; know how to proactively support friends and ask for support confidently, honestly and openly; know how to exchange ideas, discuss and respond correctly to communication or learning situations.
5- Conduct group interaction processing : Group interaction processing should be considered an organic part of group activities. After finishing the work, learners must discuss to evaluate whether their group works well together, and how to adjust to achieve higher efficiency. This operation helps learners form the skills of cooperation or collaboration with others effectively. Group interaction processing can be carried out during the activity or near the end of the group learning activity. Group interaction processing includes two aspects: first, clarifying the good aspects of the common activity and outstanding individual contributions, and promoting positive factors. Next, clarifying which aspects need to be improved or changed. Many studies show that this often works well with groups of both genders, diverse levels, experiences, and diverse strengths, interests, and tendencies.
All the above-mentioned teaching models and techniques are briefly summarized in the table “ Teaching models and techniques based on interaction” in the appendix [XT, PL2, pp. 9-11]. The functions of teaching models are determined relatively, their actual effectiveness depends almost entirely on the learner and the learning process. Only when the learner factor matches a certain type of teaching method, will the application of specific functions and techniques by the teacher in the teaching process really be meaningful. The effectiveness of teaching methods depends on the interaction