Some Creative Features In Decorative Sculpture Of Chinese Temple Buddha Statues

as those of India, especially of the Gandhara school, the Pati and Sassanian Iranian styles, and those of China in the East. The remarkable achievements, especially in sculpture, show an impressive pattern of continuity and high standards over this vast area. The faces of the priests of Miran combine with those of the Gandhara sculptures seen in some of the small portable wooden shrines. The shrine shows many of the features of its style of learning from Gandhara sources. The earliest iconography is suggestive of Gandhara sources. A Buddha with a moustache, a topknot, a loose robe, flaming shoulders, and a lion throne may even have been produced in Gandhara and then taken to China.

When compared with the earliest known Buddha, the famous seated Sakyamuni in the Brundage Collection in San Francisco, the Chinese tendencies are evident. The figure has Gandhara-style hair and robes, a youthful posture, and hands clasped horizontally rather than placed flat in the lap. The preference for traditional Chinese two-dimensional forms is often noted for the flatness of the body and the unmistakable dominance of line in these early figures. It took two centuries for three-dimensional Buddhist sculpture to fully emerge, and it closely resembles the Indian style. Later, as the role of Buddhism within China declined and Indian influence diminished, artists would return to linear tendencies.

The square faces and bodies of the cave figures from the Northern Caves of Yungang show that their clothing folds are composed of raised lines and cuts. This suggests that

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The artists may have worked from drawings or sketches brought back by pilgrims from holy sites in India, especially the northwestern regions of Gandhara. Later disciples deepened the eyes to add definition. The Bodhisattva and the flaming mandala surrounded by numerous Buddha figures, emphasizing the Mahayana Buddhist view of the Buddha as a transcendent and superhuman figure, a subject well suited to the spaciousness of the Yungang cave shrines, which are used to indicate the rapid spread of Buddhism because these caves are not only contemporary with Ajanta but also pre-date most of the rock carvings of Central Asia, including the 5th-6th century colossal Buddhas of Bamiyan in Afghanistan [39,130].

By the mid-sixth century, both Buddhist art and ritual had been assimilated into Chinese culture. The end of the Buddhist period generally coincides with the return of centralized political authority in 589, after nearly four centuries of civil war, and with the beginning of one of China's greatest cultural periods. The iconography of the second half of the sixth century is widely defined as a transitional period, reflecting both the development of local cults and the influence of Indian forms. The dominance of linear forms began to give way to an interest in three-dimensional spatial structure, which is considered to be closer to the Indian aesthetic of sculpture.

An increasing interest in form rather than in decorative rhythms began to appear in Northern Wei dynasty (550–77) sculpture as the basic theme emerged in lower reliefs, tall and rounded figures with secondary figures, scrolled decorations, dragons, mountains pushed aside or clustered on top.

the top of the stela. Individual figures were no longer hidden beneath flowing drapery or lost in crowded scenes, with Amitabha and his retinue now emerging from a mass of celestial figures surrounded by palaces and foliage, each principal figure immediately recognizable in the complex landscape. The new awareness of sculptural form led to simpler depictions of the principal figures, even though the scenes were often complex. This was a process that distinguished this transitional period of Buddhist artistry and led to the more complete sculptural form of the subsequent Tang dynasty.

A central theme, shared by most schools, concerns a belief in the Western Paradise of Amitabha Buddha. Indian cosmology divides the universe into regions with separate deities and heavenly kings responsible for each. The southern region, surrounded by oceans and mountains, and centered on Mount Meru, was considered the spiritual realm of humanity in Chinese Buddhism, but due to the influence of Taoist priests on the importance assigned to the western regions, the focus of wood devotion shifted to that region. Numerous depictions of this paradise were painted and even carved on the walls of temples and cave shrines, especially during the Tang Dynasty. These scenes included a series of secondary figures arranged in a straight line, such as statues of Bodhisattvas, guardians, and monks. These statues occupy lavishly decorated palaces and the skies above are filled with flying angels carrying flags and flowers and showering jewels on those below. The iconography associated with this concept emphasizes three main figures. The first is Amitabha, the ruler of paradise, while the other two are two Bodhisattvas with distinctly different roles. One is Avalokiteshvara, and the other is

called “Guanyin” in Chinese. He is the intermediary who guides the souls of believers to Amitabha’s pure land and also has many other functions such as saving those in distress. The Bodhisattva is also called Maitreya Buddha, that is, the Buddha of the future who is waiting in his heavenly horn [24,130].

Much of the art and ritual draws its inspiration from the three schools of Buddhism. Some subjects are universal, such as Amitabha, the Buddha of the Western Paradise, which is familiar to many sects, while others are particularly fond of portraits of monks. Some subjects are limited by the special needs of the sects, such as the mandalas of the Tantric sects or Zen subjects designed to express unique thinking. It is difficult to attribute each work to a particular sect or to a particular Buddhist sutra, but some awareness of the beliefs of the major sects of Chinese Buddhism is helpful for understanding the broad areas of art that fall within the category of Buddhist art.

Next to the group of statues are two radicals. These are the most interesting deities in the Buddhist pantheon. They are black in complexion because they were seen as foreigners from India or Central Asia. Their importance increased during the Tang, especially as turmoil and instability continued and so people sought their protection. Usually the month deities were represented in groups of twelve, but they are best known as the guardians of the four directions, the Four Heavenly Kings of Lokapala, around Mount Meru. Gradually they emerged as a patron group and assumed a distinct function, eventually gaining their own shrine. The model for these colorful images was the Indian Yakshas, whose gestures

Their fierce appearance and their extravagant costumes are of Central Asian origin. Their heavy, heavy robes recall the nomadic warriors of the steppes, although the constant presence of writhing, dwarf-like figures in the doorway being trampled under the feet of the Lokapalas recalls their pre-Buddhist Yaksha origins.

The attainment of heavenly rewards is facilitated by the efforts of the Bodhisattvas. The latter is depicted seated on an elephant with his tusks behind it. Intercession on behalf of the faithful ensures safe passage to paradise. By the end of the Tang Dynasty, Avalokiteshvara secured such great protection that he was venerated as a solitary figure. His images were so much in demand by devotees that they contributed to the rise of block printing, a Chinese invention whose consequences far exceeded the spread of Buddhism. Avalokiteshvara also became the central figure in large compositions, occupying a more important position than the fashionable iconographically correct Sakyamuni Buddha, whose right hand hung at his side, signifying this. The folds have destroyed the figures of the two monks. The Bodhisattvas, however, remain intact, as does the parasol above and the group of destitute below. The device used to depict the summit of Kenh Kenh itself is particularly striking, for instead of a mountain at the feet of the Buddha, the artist has surrounded the halo with mythical rocks that appear in Indian art, at Ajanta, and this decorative motif later played a prominent role in Chinese, Tibetan-Chinese and Japanese painting, and in garden art, but rarely as creative or vivid as in this depiction. The special appeal of the theme of Kenh Kenh Kenh, continues to inspire talented East Asian artists, such as the depiction of the mountain as

A typical canal head in gilded and floating manuscripts on a traditional version depicting the Buddha's sermon.

Another important influence on Buddhist art was the Pure Land school, which was also reformed in the early 6th century, except in the southern regions near the Yangtze Plain. Originating from the Prajnaparamita Sutras translated into Chinese around the 4th century, the movement was given a distinct form by a Taoist convert who, like the Tiantai sect, emphasized the influence of Amitabha as the Western Paradise, also known as the Pure Land. However, the method of Jinlun (476–542) placed more emphasis on Amitabha by focusing on the continuous recitation of his name rather than on the meritorious deeds or meditation techniques favored by most other Buddhists. Most artists who used Pure Land imagery supported the belief in rebirth in Amitabha's Western Paradise with scenes of extreme splendor, contrasting with detailed depictions of the tortures of the hells that await non-believers. As in Tendai art, the compassionate Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara plays a prominent role, and she is depicted in Japanese representations as descending from heaven to guide the souls of the deceased.

The Tantric sects that developed during the Tang drew on other visual arts. Esoteric speculation and Tantric rituals required complex iconography and encouraged a growing pantheon of gods, although the Madhyamakas had fierce deities, guardian deities, and a vast array of ritual objects and ritual implements dating to a later period.

3.3. SOME CREATIVE FEATURES IN DECORATIVE SCULPTURE OF CHINESE BUDDHA STATUES

Although centuries of trade along the Silk Road bringing Chinese goods to the Roman Empire had given rise to countless small independent cities and states, knowledge of the artistic heritage of this vast region remained largely unknown until the early 20th century. The publication of the travelogue of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang in the 7th century and the expeditions of explorers and archaeologists, most notably the British archaeologist Aurel Stein, revealed a remarkable subculture of 1,000 years old and with artistic remains of astonishing quality and scope among the thousands of caves carved into the sheer rock facets of Ajnata with its elaborately carved facades and intricate architectural details. For their sculptures, artisans constructed the forms from crude wooden molds, covering them with large amounts of colored clay after drying in the arid climate. Although this technique was fragile, it was used throughout northern China and in Japanese temples. Although the soft, brittle sandstone made carving difficult, it did not limit the sculpture.

From its introduction around the beginning of the Common Era, Chinese Buddhism was subject to a process of transformation and adaptation in order to live within the framework of an established Confucian system that emphasized patriarchal values, as well as the mystical tendencies of popular Taoism. Chinese Buddhism developed in a fascinating process that can be aptly described as one of introduction.

or convergence, has emphasized the similarities between these doctrines. For example, the Mahayana Buddhist belief in the need to accumulate merit is equated with the Chinese preference for ancestor worship. The hermetic tendencies of Taoism are seen as similar to the Buddhist monastic lifestyle. The Buddhist emphasis on karma and the accumulation of merit is directed toward religious responsibility, suggesting that humans can create or influence their own destiny. This emphasis appealed directly to the business ethics of the merchant classes and provided a link to an important segment of Chinese culture. The development of the Buddhist Tantric sects benefited from parallels with traditional Taoist magic.

The process of adjustment and adaptation is reflected in the story of Sakyamuni and the Buddha Prabhutaratna, a tradition often represented in Chinese art. Its popular character derives largely from its fusion of both Confucian devotion to the past and Taoist fondness for miraculous events. According to a Chinese scripture called the Lotus Sutra, the historical Sakyamuni wished to prove his infinite existence and called upon an ancient Buddha from the distant past, the Buddha Prabhutaratna, to come back to this life through time to engage in discussions about the philosophical mysteries of the faith. The ancient Buddha entered a stupa accompanied by a retinue of garlands bearing angels who distributed gold and silver jewels while celestial musicians serenaded the people. Shakyamuni entered the stupa and the two Buddhas, then proceeded to discuss according to ancient Chinese customs, the whole event suggesting that Buddhist practices were not very different from Chinese practices. Both valued the highest connections with the past and the conversation seemed to reach

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