Fourth: In the process of resolving credit contract disputes, many judges studied documents and evidence that were not complete and clear, evaluated evidence that did not match objective facts, even incorrectly determined the procedural status of the parties or did not summon all the people required to attend the trial, leading to many trials seriously violating procedural rules and as a result, the judgment was annulled due to violation of procedural obligations.
Fifth: The current court staff is still lacking in quantity and weak in capacity. Some court staff have low ethics and professional responsibility, so they have committed violations that affect the outcome of the case.
Sixth: The application of information technology and upgrading of facilities in the operation of the Court still has many limitations. The process of resolving disputes still takes a lot of time, many types of costs, many intermediaries while the financial sector is a sensitive field that requires quick resolution so that the parties can quickly resume normal operations.
2.3.2. Basic factors affecting the quality of judgments resolving credit contract disputes at Court
- Inadequacies of legal regulations on resolving credit contract disputes.
Maybe you are interested!
-
Basic factors affecting tourists' satisfaction with the quality of tourism services in Dong Nai province - 12 -
![Qos Assurance Methods for Multimedia Communications
zt2i3t4l5ee
zt2a3gs
zt2a3ge
zc2o3n4t5e6n7ts
low. The EF PHB requires a sufficiently large number of output ports to provide low delay, low loss, and low jitter.
EF PHBs can be implemented if the output ports bandwidth is sufficiently large, combined with small buffer sizes and other network resources dedicated to EF packets, to allow the routers service rate for EF packets on an output port to exceed the arrival rate λ of packets at that port.
This means that packets with PHB EF are considered with a pre-allocated amount of output bandwidth and a priority that ensures minimum loss, minimum delay and minimum jitter before being put into operation.
PHB EF is suitable for channel simulation, leased line simulation, and real-time services such as voice, video without compromising on high loss, delay and jitter values.
Figure 2.10 Example of EF installation
Figure 2.10 shows an example of an EF PHB implementation. This is a simple priority queue scheduling technique. At the edges of the DS domain, EF packet traffic is prioritized according to the values agreed upon by the SLA. The EF queue in the figure needs to output packets at a rate higher than the packet arrival rate λ. To provide an EF PHB over an end-to-end DS domain, bandwidth at the output ports of the core routers needs to be allocated in advance to ensure the requirement μ > λ. This can be done by a pre-configured provisioning process. In the figure, EF packets are placed in the priority queue (the upper queue). With such a length, the queue can operate with μ > λ.
Since EF was primarily used for real-time services such as voice and video, and since real-time services use UDP instead of TCP, RED is generally
not suitable for EF queues because applications using UDP will not respond to random packet drop and RED will strip unnecessary packets.
2.2.4.2 Assured Forwarding (AF) PHB
PHB AF is defined by RFC 2597. The purpose of PHB AF is to deliver packets reliably and therefore delay and jitter are considered less important than packet loss. PHB AF is suitable for non-real-time services such as applications using TCP. PHB AF first defines four classes: AF1, AF2, AF3, AF4. For each of these AF classes, packets are then classified into three subclasses with three distinct priority levels.
Table 2.8 shows the four AF classes and 12 AF subclasses and the DSCP values for the 12 AF subclasses defined by RFC 2597. RFC 2597 also allows for more than three separate priority levels to be added for internal use. However, these separate priority levels will only have internal significance.
PHB Class
PHB Subclass
Package type
DSCP
AF4
AF41
Short
100010
AF42
Medium
100100
AF43
High
100110
AF3
AF31
Short
011010
AF32
Medium
011100
AF33
High
011110
AF2
AF21
Short
010010
AF22
Medium
010100
AF23
High
010110
AF1
AF11
Short
001010
AF12
Medium
001100
AF13
High
001110
Table 2.8 AF DSCPs
The AF PHB ensures that packets are forwarded with a high probability of delivery to the destination within the bounds of the rate agreed upon in an SLA. If AF traffic at an ingress port exceeds the pre-priority rate, which is considered non-compliant or “out of profile”, the excess packets will not be delivered to the destination with the same probability as the packets belonging to the defined traffic or “in profile” packets. When there is network congestion, the out of profile packets are dropped before the in profile packets are dropped.
When service levels are defined using AF classes, different quantity and quality between AF classes can be realized by allocating different amounts of bandwidth and buffer space to the four AF classes. Unlike
EF, most AF traffic is non-real-time traffic using TCP, and the RED queue management strategy is an AQM (Adaptive Queue Management) strategy suitable for use in AF PHBs. The four AF PHB layers can be implemented as four separate queues. The output port bandwidth is divided into four AF queues. For each AF queue, packets are marked with three “colors” corresponding to three separate priority levels.
In addition to the 32 DSCP 1 groups defined in Table 2.8, 21 DSCPs have been standardized as follows: one for PHB EF, 12 for PHB AF, and 8 for CSCP. There are 11 DSCP 1 groups still available for other standards.
2.2.5.Example of Differentiated Services
We will look at an example of the Differentiated Service model and mechanism of operation. The architecture of Differentiated Service consists of two basic sets of functions:
Edge functions: include packet classification and traffic conditioning. At the inbound edge of the network, incoming packets are marked. In particular, the DS field in the packet header is set to a certain value. For example, in Figure 2.12, packets sent from H1 to H3 are marked at R1, while packets from H2 to H4 are marked at R2. The labels on the received packets identify the service class to which they belong. Different traffic classes receive different services in the core network. The RFC definition uses the term behavior aggregate rather than the term traffic class. After being marked, a packet can be forwarded immediately into the network, delayed for a period of time before being forwarded, or dropped. We will see that there are many factors that affect how a packet is marked, and whether it is forwarded immediately, delayed, or dropped.
Figure 2.12 DiffServ Example
Core functionality: When a DS-marked packet arrives at a Diffservcapable router, the packet is forwarded to the next router based on
Per-hop behavior is associated with packet classes. Per-hop behavior affects router buffers and the bandwidth shared between competing classes. An important principle of the Differentiated Service architecture is that a routers per-hop behavior is based only on the packets marking or the class to which it belongs. Therefore, if packets sent from H1 to H3 as shown in the figure receive the same marking as packets from H2 to H4, then the network routers treat the packets exactly the same, regardless of whether the packet originated from H1 or H2. For example, R3 does not distinguish between packets from h1 and H2 when forwarding packets to R4. Therefore, the Differentiated Service architecture avoids the need to maintain router state about separate source-destination pairs, which is important for network scalability.
Chapter Conclusion
Chapter 2 has presented and clarified two main models of deploying and installing quality of service in IP networks. While the traditional best-effort model has many disadvantages, later models such as IntServ and DiffServ have partly solved the problems that best-effort could not solve. IntServ follows the direction of ensuring quality of service for each separate flow, it is built similar to the circuit switching model with the use of the RSVP resource reservation protocol. IntSer is suitable for services that require fixed bandwidth that is not shared such as VoIP services, multicast TV services. However, IntSer has disadvantages such as using a lot of network resources, low scalability and lack of flexibility. DiffServ was born with the idea of solving the disadvantages of the IntServ model.
DiffServ follows the direction of ensuring quality based on the principle of hop-by-hop behavior based on the priority of marked packets. The policy for different types of traffic is decided by the administrator and can be changed according to reality, so it is very flexible. DiffServ makes better use of network resources, avoiding idle bandwidth and processing capacity on routers. In addition, the DifServ model can be deployed on many independent domains, so the ability to expand the network becomes easy.
Chapter 3: METHODS TO ENSURE QoS FOR MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATIONS
In packet-switched networks, different packet flows often have to share the transmission medium all the way to the destination station. To ensure the fair and efficient allocation of bandwidth to flows, appropriate serving mechanisms are required at network nodes, especially at gateways or routers, where many different data flows often pass through. The scheduler is responsible for serving packets of the selected flow and deciding which packet will be served next. Here, a flow is understood as a set of packets belonging to the same priority class, or originating from the same source, or having the same source and destination addresses, etc.
In normal state when there is no congestion, packets will be sent as soon as they are delivered. In case of congestion, if QoS assurance methods are not applied, prolonged congestion can cause packet drops, affecting service quality. In some cases, congestion is prolonged and widespread in the network, which can easily lead to the network being frozen, or many packets being dropped, seriously affecting service quality.
Therefore, in this chapter, in sections 3.2 and 3.3, we introduce some typical network traffic load monitoring techniques to predict and prevent congestion before it occurs through the measure of dropping (removing) packets early when there are signs of impending congestion.
3.1. DropTail method
DropTail is a simple, traditional queue management method based on FIFO mechanism. All incoming packets are placed in the queue, when the queue is full, the later packets are dropped.
Due to its simplicity and ease of implementation, DropTail has been used for many years on Internet router systems. However, this algorithm has the following disadvantages:
− Cannot avoid the phenomenon of “Lock out”: Occurs when 1 or several traffic streams monopolize the queue, making packets of other connections unable to pass through the router. This phenomenon greatly affects reliable transmission protocols such as TCP. According to the anti-congestion algorithm, when locked out, the TCP connection stream will reduce the window size and reduce the packet transmission speed exponentially.
− Can cause Global Synchronization: This is the result of a severe “Lock out” phenomenon. Some neighboring routers have their queues monopolized by a number of connections, causing a series of other TCP connections to be unable to pass through and simultaneously reducing the transmission speed. After those monopolized connections are temporarily suspended,
Once the queue is cleared, it takes a considerable amount of time for TCP connections to return to their original speed.
− Full Queue phenomenon: Data transmitted on the Internet often has an explosion, packets arriving at the router are often in clusters rather than in turn. Therefore, the operating mechanism of DropTail makes the queue easily full for a long period of time, leading to the average delay time of large packets. To avoid this phenomenon, with DropTail, the only way is to increase the routers buffer, this method is very expensive and ineffective.
− No QoS guarantee: With the DropTail mechanism, there is no way to prioritize important packets to be transmitted through the router earlier when all are in the queue. Meanwhile, with multimedia communication, ensuring connection and stable speed is extremely important and the DropTail algorithm cannot satisfy.
The problem of choosing the buffer size of the routers in the network is to “absorb” short bursts of traffic without causing too much queuing delay. This is necessary in bursty data transmission. The queue size determines the size of the packet bursts (traffic spikes) that we want to be able to transmit without being dropped at the routers.
In IP-based application networks, packet dropping is an important mechanism for indirectly reporting congestion to end stations. A solution that prevents router queues from filling up while reducing the packet drop rate is called dynamic queue management.
3.2. Random elimination method – RED
3.2.1 Overview
RED (Random Early Detection of congestion; Random Early Drop) is one of the first AQM algorithms proposed in 1993 by Sally Floyd and Van Jacobson, two scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the University of California, USA. Due to its outstanding advantages compared to previous queue management algorithms, RED has been widely installed and deployed on the Internet.
The most fundamental point of their work is that the most effective place to detect congestion and react to it is at the gateway or router.
Source entities (senders) can also do this by estimating end-to-end delay, throughput variability, or the rate of packet retransmissions due to drop. However, the sender and receiver view of a particular connection cannot tell which gateways on the network are congested, and cannot distinguish between propagation delay and queuing delay. Only the gateway has a true view of the state of the queue, the link share of the connections passing through it at any given time, and the quality of service requirements of the
traffic flows. The RED gateway monitors the average queue length, which detects early signs of impending congestion (average queue length exceeding a predetermined threshold) and reacts appropriately in one of two ways:
− Drop incoming packets with a certain probability, to indirectly inform the source of congestion, the source needs to reduce the transmission rate to keep the queue from filling up, maintaining the ability to absorb incoming traffic spikes.
− Mark “congestion” with a certain probability in the ECN field in the header of TCP packets to notify the source (the receiving entity will copy this bit into the acknowledgement packet).
Figure 3. 1 RED algorithm
The main goal of RED is to avoid congestion by keeping the average queue size within a sufficiently small and stable region, which also means keeping the queuing delay sufficiently small and stable. Achieving this goal also helps: avoid global synchronization, not resist bursty traffic flows (i.e. flows with low average throughput but high volatility), and maintain an upper bound on the average queue size even in the absence of cooperation from transport layer protocols.
To achieve the above goals, RED gateways must do the following:
− The first is to detect congestion early and react appropriately to keep the average queue size small enough to keep the network operating in the low latency, high throughput region, while still allowing the queue size to fluctuate within a certain range to absorb short-term fluctuations. As discussed above, the gateway is the most appropriate place to detect congestion and is also the most appropriate place to decide which specific connection to report congestion to.
− The second thing is to notify the source of congestion. This is done by marking and notifying the source to reduce traffic. Normally the RED gateway will randomly drop packets. However, if congestion
If congestion is detected before the queue is full, it should be combined with packet marking to signal congestion. The RED gateway has two options: drop or mark; where marking is done by marking the ECN field of the packet with a certain probability, to signal the source to reduce the traffic entering the network.
− An important goal that RED gateways need to achieve is to avoid global synchronization and not to resist traffic flows that have a sudden characteristic. Global synchronization occurs when all connections simultaneously reduce their transmission window size, leading to a severe drop in throughput at the same time. On the other hand, Drop Tail or Random Drop strategies are very sensitive to sudden flows; that is, the gateway queue will often overflow when packets from these flows arrive. To avoid these two phenomena, gateways can use special algorithms to detect congestion and decide which connections will be notified of congestion at the gateway. The RED gateway randomly selects incoming packets to mark; with this method, the probability of marking a packet from a particular connection is proportional to the connections shared bandwidth at the gateway.
− Another goal is to control the average queue size even without cooperation from the source entities. This can be done by dropping packets when the average size exceeds an upper threshold (instead of marking it). This approach is necessary in cases where most connections have transmission times that are less than the round-trip time, or where the source entities are not able to reduce traffic in response to marking or dropping packets (such as UDP flows).
3.2.2 Algorithm
This section describes the algorithm for RED gateways. RED gateways calculate the average queue size using a low-pass filter. This average queue size is compared with two thresholds: minth and maxth. When the average queue size is less than the lower threshold, no incoming packets are marked or dropped; when the average queue size is greater than the upper threshold, all incoming packets are dropped. When the average queue size is between minth and maxth, each incoming packet is marked or dropped with a probability pa, where pa is a function of the average queue size avg; the probability of marking or dropping a packet for a particular connection is proportional to the bandwidth share of that connection at the gateway. The general algorithm for a RED gateway is described as follows: [5]
For each packet arrival
Caculate the average queue size avg If minth ≤ avg < maxth
div.maincontent .s1 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .s2 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .p { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; margin:0pt; }
div.maincontent p { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; margin:0pt; }
div.maincontent .s3 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s4 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s5 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s6 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s7 { color: black; font-family:Wingdings; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s8 { color: black; font-family:Arial, sans-serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .s9 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s10 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 9pt; vertical-align: 6pt; }
div.maincontent .s11 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 13pt; }
div.maincontent .s12 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 10pt; }
div.maincontent .s13 { color: black; font-family:Times New Roman, serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-d](https://tailieuthamkhao.com/uploads/2022/05/15/danh-gia-hieu-qua-dam-bao-qos-cho-truyen-thong-da-phuong-tien-cua-chien-6-1-120x90.jpg)
Qos Assurance Methods for Multimedia Communications
zt2i3t4l5ee
zt2a3gs
zt2a3ge
zc2o3n4t5e6n7ts
low. The EF PHB requires a sufficiently large number of output ports to provide low delay, low loss, and low jitter.
EF PHBs can be implemented if the output port's bandwidth is sufficiently large, combined with small buffer sizes and other network resources dedicated to EF packets, to allow the router's service rate for EF packets on an output port to exceed the arrival rate λ of packets at that port.
This means that packets with PHB EF are considered with a pre-allocated amount of output bandwidth and a priority that ensures minimum loss, minimum delay and minimum jitter before being put into operation.
PHB EF is suitable for channel simulation, leased line simulation, and real-time services such as voice, video without compromising on high loss, delay and jitter values.
Figure 2.10 Example of EF installation
Figure 2.10 shows an example of an EF PHB implementation. This is a simple priority queue scheduling technique. At the edges of the DS domain, EF packet traffic is prioritized according to the values agreed upon by the SLA. The EF queue in the figure needs to output packets at a rate higher than the packet arrival rate λ. To provide an EF PHB over an end-to-end DS domain, bandwidth at the output ports of the core routers needs to be allocated in advance to ensure the requirement μ > λ. This can be done by a pre-configured provisioning process. In the figure, EF packets are placed in the priority queue (the upper queue). With such a length, the queue can operate with μ > λ.
Since EF was primarily used for real-time services such as voice and video, and since real-time services use UDP instead of TCP, RED is generally
not suitable for EF queues because applications using UDP will not respond to random packet drop and RED will strip unnecessary packets.
2.2.4.2 Assured Forwarding (AF) PHB
PHB AF is defined by RFC 2597. The purpose of PHB AF is to deliver packets reliably and therefore delay and jitter are considered less important than packet loss. PHB AF is suitable for non-real-time services such as applications using TCP. PHB AF first defines four classes: AF1, AF2, AF3, AF4. For each of these AF classes, packets are then classified into three subclasses with three distinct priority levels.
Table 2.8 shows the four AF classes and 12 AF subclasses and the DSCP values for the 12 AF subclasses defined by RFC 2597. RFC 2597 also allows for more than three separate priority levels to be added for internal use. However, these separate priority levels will only have internal significance.
PHB Class
PHB Subclass
Package type
DSCP
AF4
AF41
Short
100010
AF42
Medium
100100
AF43
High
100110
AF3
AF31
Short
011010
AF32
Medium
011100
AF33
High
011110
AF2
AF21
Short
010010
AF22
Medium
010100
AF23
High
010110
AF1
AF11
Short
001010
AF12
Medium
001100
AF13
High
001110
Table 2.8 AF DSCPs
The AF PHB ensures that packets are forwarded with a high probability of delivery to the destination within the bounds of the rate agreed upon in an SLA. If AF traffic at an ingress port exceeds the pre-priority rate, which is considered non-compliant or “out of profile”, the excess packets will not be delivered to the destination with the same probability as the packets belonging to the defined traffic or “in profile” packets. When there is network congestion, the out of profile packets are dropped before the in profile packets are dropped.
When service levels are defined using AF classes, different quantity and quality between AF classes can be realized by allocating different amounts of bandwidth and buffer space to the four AF classes. Unlike
EF, most AF traffic is non-real-time traffic using TCP, and the RED queue management strategy is an AQM (Adaptive Queue Management) strategy suitable for use in AF PHBs. The four AF PHB layers can be implemented as four separate queues. The output port bandwidth is divided into four AF queues. For each AF queue, packets are marked with three “colors” corresponding to three separate priority levels.
In addition to the 32 DSCP 1 groups defined in Table 2.8, 21 DSCPs have been standardized as follows: one for PHB EF, 12 for PHB AF, and 8 for CSCP. There are 11 DSCP 1 groups still available for other standards.
2.2.5.Example of Differentiated Services
We will look at an example of the Differentiated Service model and mechanism of operation. The architecture of Differentiated Service consists of two basic sets of functions:
Edge functions: include packet classification and traffic conditioning. At the inbound edge of the network, incoming packets are marked. In particular, the DS field in the packet header is set to a certain value. For example, in Figure 2.12, packets sent from H1 to H3 are marked at R1, while packets from H2 to H4 are marked at R2. The labels on the received packets identify the service class to which they belong. Different traffic classes receive different services in the core network. The RFC definition uses the term behavior aggregate rather than the term traffic class. After being marked, a packet can be forwarded immediately into the network, delayed for a period of time before being forwarded, or dropped. We will see that there are many factors that affect how a packet is marked, and whether it is forwarded immediately, delayed, or dropped.
Figure 2.12 DiffServ Example
Core functionality: When a DS-marked packet arrives at a Diffservcapable router, the packet is forwarded to the next router based on
Per-hop behavior is associated with packet classes. Per-hop behavior affects router buffers and the bandwidth shared between competing classes. An important principle of the Differentiated Service architecture is that a router's per-hop behavior is based only on the packet's marking or the class to which it belongs. Therefore, if packets sent from H1 to H3 as shown in the figure receive the same marking as packets from H2 to H4, then the network routers treat the packets exactly the same, regardless of whether the packet originated from H1 or H2. For example, R3 does not distinguish between packets from h1 and H2 when forwarding packets to R4. Therefore, the Differentiated Service architecture avoids the need to maintain router state about separate source-destination pairs, which is important for network scalability.
Chapter Conclusion
Chapter 2 has presented and clarified two main models of deploying and installing quality of service in IP networks. While the traditional best-effort model has many disadvantages, later models such as IntServ and DiffServ have partly solved the problems that best-effort could not solve. IntServ follows the direction of ensuring quality of service for each separate flow, it is built similar to the circuit switching model with the use of the RSVP resource reservation protocol. IntSer is suitable for services that require fixed bandwidth that is not shared such as VoIP services, multicast TV services. However, IntSer has disadvantages such as using a lot of network resources, low scalability and lack of flexibility. DiffServ was born with the idea of solving the disadvantages of the IntServ model.
DiffServ follows the direction of ensuring quality based on the principle of hop-by-hop behavior based on the priority of marked packets. The policy for different types of traffic is decided by the administrator and can be changed according to reality, so it is very flexible. DiffServ makes better use of network resources, avoiding idle bandwidth and processing capacity on routers. In addition, the DifServ model can be deployed on many independent domains, so the ability to expand the network becomes easy.
Chapter 3: METHODS TO ENSURE QoS FOR MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATIONS
In packet-switched networks, different packet flows often have to share the transmission medium all the way to the destination station. To ensure the fair and efficient allocation of bandwidth to flows, appropriate serving mechanisms are required at network nodes, especially at gateways or routers, where many different data flows often pass through. The scheduler is responsible for serving packets of the selected flow and deciding which packet will be served next. Here, a flow is understood as a set of packets belonging to the same priority class, or originating from the same source, or having the same source and destination addresses, etc.
In normal state when there is no congestion, packets will be sent as soon as they are delivered. In case of congestion, if QoS assurance methods are not applied, prolonged congestion can cause packet drops, affecting service quality. In some cases, congestion is prolonged and widespread in the network, which can easily lead to the network being "frozen", or many packets being dropped, seriously affecting service quality.
Therefore, in this chapter, in sections 3.2 and 3.3, we introduce some typical network traffic load monitoring techniques to predict and prevent congestion before it occurs through the measure of dropping (removing) packets early when there are signs of impending congestion.
3.1. DropTail method
DropTail is a simple, traditional queue management method based on FIFO mechanism. All incoming packets are placed in the queue, when the queue is full, the later packets are dropped.
Due to its simplicity and ease of implementation, DropTail has been used for many years on Internet router systems. However, this algorithm has the following disadvantages:
− Cannot avoid the phenomenon of “Lock out”: Occurs when 1 or several traffic streams monopolize the queue, making packets of other connections unable to pass through the router. This phenomenon greatly affects reliable transmission protocols such as TCP. According to the anti-congestion algorithm, when locked out, the TCP connection stream will reduce the window size and reduce the packet transmission speed exponentially.
− Can cause Global Synchronization: This is the result of a severe “Lock out” phenomenon. Some neighboring routers have their queues monopolized by a number of connections, causing a series of other TCP connections to be unable to pass through and simultaneously reducing the transmission speed. After those monopolized connections are temporarily suspended,
Once the queue is cleared, it takes a considerable amount of time for TCP connections to return to their original speed.
− Full Queue phenomenon: Data transmitted on the Internet often has an explosion, packets arriving at the router are often in clusters rather than in turn. Therefore, the operating mechanism of DropTail makes the queue easily full for a long period of time, leading to the average delay time of large packets. To avoid this phenomenon, with DropTail, the only way is to increase the router's buffer, this method is very expensive and ineffective.
− No QoS guarantee: With the DropTail mechanism, there is no way to prioritize important packets to be transmitted through the router earlier when all are in the queue. Meanwhile, with multimedia communication, ensuring connection and stable speed is extremely important and the DropTail algorithm cannot satisfy.
The problem of choosing the buffer size of the routers in the network is to “absorb” short bursts of traffic without causing too much queuing delay. This is necessary in bursty data transmission. The queue size determines the size of the packet bursts (traffic spikes) that we want to be able to transmit without being dropped at the routers.
In IP-based application networks, packet dropping is an important mechanism for indirectly reporting congestion to end stations. A solution that prevents router queues from filling up while reducing the packet drop rate is called dynamic queue management.
3.2. Random elimination method – RED
3.2.1 Overview
RED (Random Early Detection of congestion; Random Early Drop) is one of the first AQM algorithms proposed in 1993 by Sally Floyd and Van Jacobson, two scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the University of California, USA. Due to its outstanding advantages compared to previous queue management algorithms, RED has been widely installed and deployed on the Internet.
The most fundamental point of their work is that the most effective place to detect congestion and react to it is at the gateway or router.
Source entities (senders) can also do this by estimating end-to-end delay, throughput variability, or the rate of packet retransmissions due to drop. However, the sender and receiver view of a particular connection cannot tell which gateways on the network are congested, and cannot distinguish between propagation delay and queuing delay. Only the gateway has a true view of the state of the queue, the link share of the connections passing through it at any given time, and the quality of service requirements of the
traffic flows. The RED gateway monitors the average queue length, which detects early signs of impending congestion (average queue length exceeding a predetermined threshold) and reacts appropriately in one of two ways:
− Drop incoming packets with a certain probability, to indirectly inform the source of congestion, the source needs to reduce the transmission rate to keep the queue from filling up, maintaining the ability to absorb incoming traffic spikes.
− Mark “congestion” with a certain probability in the ECN field in the header of TCP packets to notify the source (the receiving entity will copy this bit into the acknowledgement packet).
Figure 3. 1 RED algorithm
The main goal of RED is to avoid congestion by keeping the average queue size within a sufficiently small and stable region, which also means keeping the queuing delay sufficiently small and stable. Achieving this goal also helps: avoid global synchronization, not resist bursty traffic flows (i.e. flows with low average throughput but high volatility), and maintain an upper bound on the average queue size even in the absence of cooperation from transport layer protocols.
To achieve the above goals, RED gateways must do the following:
− The first is to detect congestion early and react appropriately to keep the average queue size small enough to keep the network operating in the low latency, high throughput region, while still allowing the queue size to fluctuate within a certain range to absorb short-term fluctuations. As discussed above, the gateway is the most appropriate place to detect congestion and is also the most appropriate place to decide which specific connection to report congestion to.
− The second thing is to notify the source of congestion. This is done by marking and notifying the source to reduce traffic. Normally the RED gateway will randomly drop packets. However, if congestion
If congestion is detected before the queue is full, it should be combined with packet marking to signal congestion. The RED gateway has two options: drop or mark; where marking is done by marking the ECN field of the packet with a certain probability, to signal the source to reduce the traffic entering the network.
− An important goal that RED gateways need to achieve is to avoid global synchronization and not to resist traffic flows that have a sudden characteristic. Global synchronization occurs when all connections simultaneously reduce their transmission window size, leading to a severe drop in throughput at the same time. On the other hand, Drop Tail or Random Drop strategies are very sensitive to sudden flows; that is, the gateway queue will often overflow when packets from these flows arrive. To avoid these two phenomena, gateways can use special algorithms to detect congestion and decide which connections will be notified of congestion at the gateway. The RED gateway randomly selects incoming packets to mark; with this method, the probability of marking a packet from a particular connection is proportional to the connection's shared bandwidth at the gateway.
− Another goal is to control the average queue size even without cooperation from the source entities. This can be done by dropping packets when the average size exceeds an upper threshold (instead of marking it). This approach is necessary in cases where most connections have transmission times that are less than the round-trip time, or where the source entities are not able to reduce traffic in response to marking or dropping packets (such as UDP flows).
3.2.2 Algorithm
This section describes the algorithm for RED gateways. RED gateways calculate the average queue size using a low-pass filter. This average queue size is compared with two thresholds: minth and maxth. When the average queue size is less than the lower threshold, no incoming packets are marked or dropped; when the average queue size is greater than the upper threshold, all incoming packets are dropped. When the average queue size is between minth and maxth, each incoming packet is marked or dropped with a probability pa, where pa is a function of the average queue size avg; the probability of marking or dropping a packet for a particular connection is proportional to the bandwidth share of that connection at the gateway. The general algorithm for a RED gateway is described as follows: [5]
For each packet arrival
Caculate the average queue size avg If minth ≤ avg < maxth
div.maincontent .s1 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .s2 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .p { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; margin:0pt; }
div.maincontent p { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; margin:0pt; }
div.maincontent .s3 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s4 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s5 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s6 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s7 { color: black; font-family:Wingdings; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s8 { color: black; font-family:Arial, sans-serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 15pt; }
div.maincontent .s9 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none; font-size: 14pt; }
div.maincontent .s10 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 9pt; vertical-align: 6pt; }
div.maincontent .s11 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 13pt; }
div.maincontent .s12 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-decoration: none; font-size: 10pt; }
div.maincontent .s13 { color: black; font-family:"Times New Roman", serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; text-d -
Some Factors Affecting the Quality of Short-Term Loan Services for Business Customers of Commercial Banks -
Factors affecting customer satisfaction with the quality of international money transfer services at Dong A Commercial Joint Stock Bank - 1 -
Factors Affecting the Quality of Auditing Financial Statements of Banks Conducted by the State Audit Office
The resolution of disputes over credit contracts is currently regulated in many different legal documents, so it is difficult to avoid overlap and inconsistency between documents. This makes it difficult for the Court to resolve disputes when they arise, affecting the rights of the parties in the case and leading to an unconvincing judgment.
- Qualifications, capacity and moral qualities of the Judge.
Judges often play the role of Chairman in the court sessions to resolve credit contract disputes, and are directly assigned the task of adjudicating, representing the State to protect the law. Therefore, to have a quality judgment, Judges need to have a solid knowledge base, understand the law, and must always update new knowledge and regularly improve their professional capacity.
The moral qualities of a judge have a direct impact on the resolution of a case.
The credit contract dispute case was resolved. It is necessary to train and foster the moral qualities of judges to have fair, objective and legal judgments.
- Activities of providing evidence, documents and proof of relevant entities, especially the parties.
In resolving credit contract disputes in court, the responsibility for providing evidence belongs to the disputing parties. Whether the judgment is true to objective truth or not depends largely on the evidence provided by the parties. Before the court, if the parties cannot prove the existence of their legitimate rights and interests, they cannot convince the court to protect their rights and interests. Because in reality, the courts can also make mistakes in determining the details and events of the dispute. Therefore, proving not only has the meaning of ensuring the rights of the parties but also has the meaning of helping the Trial Panel have legal grounds to resolve the case accurately and in accordance with the law.
Chapter 2 Conclusion
For credit institutions that want to survive and develop credit activities, they must also pay attention to limiting disputes that occur in credit activities. The law on resolving disputes that occur in credit contracts at the Court plays a very important role in minimizing risks in resolving bad debts and recovering capital. Thereby, helping credit institutions survive and develop, while also contributing to the stability and development of the monetary market.
Through studying the current situation of resolving credit contract disputes of the People's Court of Phu Tho province, the thesis analyzed the organizational structure of the People's Court of Phu Tho province, evaluated the achieved results, the limitations drawn in the trial process, thereby providing a basis for proposing specific solutions in Chapter 3.
Chapter 3
VIEWPOINTS AND SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF RESOLVING CREDIT CONTRACT DISPUTES IN COURT FROM THE PRACTICE OF PHU THO PROVINCE
3.1. Viewpoints on perfecting procedures for resolving credit contract disputes at Court
Resolving credit contract disputes at the Court is an important law enforcement activity, demonstrating fairness and legality in issuing legally binding judgments to parties in dispute over rights and interests, contributing to protecting the legitimate rights and interests of the State, organizations and individuals, stabilizing and improving social relations, and promoting civil transactions in accordance with the State's direction. Therefore, the resolution of credit contract dispute cases at the People's Court of Phu Tho province needs to thoroughly grasp and seriously implement the following basic viewpoints:
3.1.1. Thoroughly grasp the Party's viewpoints, guidelines and policies on applying the law in resolving cases in general and resolving credit contract disputes in particular.
In the current national renewal process, our Party has issued many resolutions addressing the issue of both the judicial system and especially Resolution No. 49-NQ/TW dated June 2, 2005 of the Politburo “On the strategy of judicial reform to 2020” and Resolution No. 81/2014/QH13 dated November 24, 2014 “On the implementation of the law on the organization of people's courts”. This issue continues to be mentioned in the Political Reports of the National Congresses of our Party.
As the agency performing the function of adjudicating cases (including cases of credit contract disputes), and being the agency adjudicating at both first instance and appeal levels, the application of the law on procedures for adjudicating credit contract disputes at the People's Court of Phu Tho province in the current period must also be carried out on the basis of thoroughly grasping the Party's viewpoints on this field. These are the Party's guiding viewpoints in documents and Resolutions of the Congresses of Delegates.
nationwide
Properly and fully implementing procedural regulations in the process of adjudicating commercial business cases on credit contract disputes is the basis for contributing to promoting judicial reform, aiming to "Build a clean and strong judicial system, protect justice, respect and protect human rights". Therefore, it is necessary to thoroughly grasp the Party's viewpoints, guidelines and policies on judicial reform in the current period:
First: Judicial reform must be under the close leadership of the Party, ensuring political stability, the nature of the Vietnamese socialist rule of law state of the people, by the people, for the people, state power is unified, with division and coordination among state agencies in exercising legislative, executive and judicial powers.
Second: Judicial reform must originate from the requirements of socio-economic development, building a democratic, fair and civilized society; contribute to promoting socio-economic development, firmly protecting the Fatherland; associated with innovation in legislative work and administrative reform. At the same time, it is necessary to inherit the national legal tradition and the achievements of the Vietnamese socialist judiciary: selectively absorb foreign experiences suitable to the circumstances of our country and the requirements of proactive international integration, meeting the development trends of society in the future.
Third: Judicial reform is carried out urgently, synchronously, with a focus and key points with steady steps. On June 2, 2005, the Politburo issued Resolution No. 49/NQ-TW on the judicial reform strategy until 2020, which sets out the task of building and perfecting the organization and operation of the People's Court in the direction of: Organizing the Court system according to independent jurisdiction, not depending on administrative units, including regional courts of first instance organized in one or several district-level administrative units; Courts of Appeal whose main task is to hear appeals and hear first-instance cases; Courts of Appeal organized by region with the task of hearing appeals, the Supreme People's Court with the task of summarizing trial experiences, guiding the unified application of the law, developing precedents and adjudicating and reviewing cases. The establishment of specialized courts must be based on the reality of trial.
of each level of the Court, each region. Innovating the organization of the People's Court in a streamlined direction with a team of Judges who are leading legal experts with experience in the industry [1].
Fourth: Promote the combined strength of the entire society in the process of judicial reform. Judicial agencies and judicial support agencies must be under the supervision of elected bodies and the people.
The above viewpoints of the Communist Party of Vietnam are the theoretical basis and orientation for the application of law to resolve credit contract disputes of the People's Court in general and the application of law in resolving contract disputes of the People's Court of Phu Tho province in particular.
3.1.2. Specific views on the application of law in resolving credit contract disputes of the People's Court sector in general and the People's Court in Phu Tho province in particular
On the basis of thoroughly grasping the basic viewpoints of our Party stated in section 3.2.1 of the Thesis, it can be seen that the basic viewpoints ensuring effective application of the law in resolving cases in general and credit contract dispute cases in particular of the People's Court of Phu Tho province are:
First : Strengthening the Party's leadership in the application of law in resolving credit contract disputes at the People's Court of Phu Tho province, the Party leads in three aspects: Ideology, organization and staff. Regularly monitoring the activities of the Court, evaluating the ethics and qualities, exemplary role of cadres and Party members in the Court sector, the Party's leadership is demonstrated in the aspect of directing the Court to follow the direction of strict, fair and lawful trials, creating the trust of the masses in the Court in particular and the Party's leadership in general.
Second : Applying the law in resolving credit contract disputes must pay more attention to the issue of reconciliation, stemming from social relations. Credit contract disputes often occur when the parties to the contract cannot agree on the issue that the parties need to resolve. Therefore, when the parties need the intervention of the Court, the Court is the agency that determines the rights.
and obligations of the parties to ensure the legitimate rights and interests as well as the performance of the obligations of the parties. Resolving conflicts between the parties through mediation will help reduce time and costs for the Court as well as the parties involved in the dispute. Therefore, mediation in resolving credit contract disputes must be focused on and given top priority.
The application of law in resolving credit contract disputes when making a decision must pay attention to feasibility and practical implementation to ensure the rights and interests of the parties to the contract.
Third: Increasing litigation in court is one of the important contents in the current judicial reform. Expanding litigation in court will help the parties involved protect their rights and interests and help the trial of the Court at all levels improve the quality when issuing judgments and decisions to avoid errors in litigation activities.
Based on the basic principle of resolving civil disputes in general and resolving credit contract disputes in particular, the right to self-determination and self-determination belongs to the parties. The application of law in resolving credit contract disputes not only allows the Court to designate the application of legal norms to resolve disputes, but also demonstrates the equality of the parties participating in the legal relationship.
Fourth: Strengthen training, fostering, building and developing a team of Judges and People's Assessors who meet the professional and legal requirements to handle credit contract dispute cases in sufficient quantity and quality.
3.2. Solutions to improve the efficiency of resolving credit contract disputes at Court
3.2.1. Legal solutions to limit disputes arising from credit contracts
First: It is necessary to perfect the legal regulations on lending interest rates in credit contracts. The parties involved in a credit contract always have an agreement on interest rates, collateral, and the handling of collateral as stipulated in the contract or other agreements between the credit institution and the party.
Borrowing capital. In case the borrower fails to repay the loan on time, they must repay the principal, interest on time and overdue interest to the credit institution. However, the application of overdue interest rates by credit institutions to customers with overdue debt in practice still has many shortcomings, not in accordance with the provisions of the law. In the process of resolving credit contract disputes, the application of legal provisions on loan interest rates and overdue interest rates at credit institutions and the Court still has many shortcomings.
According to Clause 2, Article 305 of the 2005 Civil Code, it is stipulated that: “In case the obligated party is late in paying, that party must pay interest on the late amount at the basic interest rate announced by the State Bank corresponding to the late payment period at the time of payment, unless otherwise agreed or otherwise provided by law” [23, Article 305]. In addition, Clause 5, Article 474 of the 2005 Civil Code stipulates: “In case of an interest-bearing loan, if the borrower fails to repay or does not repay in full when due, the borrower must pay interest on the principal and overdue interest at the basic interest rate announced by the State Bank corresponding to the loan term at the time of repayment” ; Clause 1, Article 476 of the 2005 Civil Code stipulates: “The loan interest rate is agreed upon by the parties but must not exceed 150% of the basic interest rate announced by the State Bank for the corresponding type of loan” [23, Article 476]. These regulations represent unreasonable imposition and are creating legal risks for lending activities in general and lending activities of credit institutions in particular. According to Clause 1, Article 12 of the Law on the State Bank of Vietnam 2010, "The State Bank shall announce refinancing interest rates, base interest rates and other interest rates to manage monetary policy and combat usury " [31, Article 12]. The Civil Code stipulates that interest must be paid on principal and overdue interest at the base interest rate announced by the State Bank corresponding to the loan term at the time of repayment and the interest rate ceiling does not exceed 150%, also with the purpose of combating usury. However, setting a rate of 150% is not appropriate because the basic interest rate is often considered a guiding interest rate and is very low compared to the market interest rate (In fact, most lending organizations and individuals must apply an interest rate exceeding the maximum interest rate prescribed in the Civil Code). According to this regulation, the mobilization interest rate and
Lending interest rates (borrowing and lending), based on the calculation of overdue interest rates of credit institutions, are determined on the basis of and are strictly legally bound to the basic interest rate announced by the State Bank corresponding to the loan term at the time of repayment. These regulations have proven to be unrealistic and always hinder the development of credit institution activities because it is like an administrative order that credit institutions must comply with while the market requires freedom. On the other hand, such regulations on interest rates can make credit contracts invalid due to violations of the provisions of the 2005 Civil Code on lending interest rates. In fact, there are times when the State Bank applies a maximum deposit interest rate ceiling of 15%/year, lending interest rates are from 18.5%-24%, while the basic interest rate announced by the State Bank is 9%/year.
Currently, the provisions of the 2005 Civil Code in Clause 5, Article 474 and Article 476 have created a constraint on the development of lending activities of credit institutions, no longer consistent with the ongoing lending activities of the free market economy on interest rate agreements. Therefore, these provisions have been amended and replaced by Clause 5, Article 466 and Article 468 of the 2015 Civil Code, which were issued and took effect from January 1, 2017. The provisions on interest rates have been changed to be consistent with the direction of regulating the right to agree on interest rates of the parties participating in credit contracts on the basis of voluntary equality of the participating entities to ensure the restriction of usury. Specifically:
- Article 468 of the 2015 Civil Code stipulates:
“1. Loan interest rate is agreed upon by the parties.
In case the parties have agreed on the interest rate, the agreed interest rate shall not exceed 20%/year of the loan amount, unless otherwise provided by other relevant laws. Based on the actual situation and upon the proposal of the Government, the Standing Committee of the National Assembly shall decide to adjust the above interest rate and report to the National Assembly at the nearest session. In case the agreed interest rate exceeds the maximum interest rate prescribed in this clause, the excess interest rate shall not be effective.
2. In case the parties have an agreement on interest payment, but do not clearly specify the interest rate and there is a dispute about the interest rate, the interest rate shall be determined at 50% of the maximum interest rate prescribed in Clause 1 of this Article at the time of debt repayment.” [24, Article 468].