Hackman & Oldham's (1975) Job Characteristics Model [8] :

defined as follows (Robbins, 2002): (a) The need for achievement is the effort to achieve outstanding achievements, the effort to succeed in the work that they desire according to certain standards, expressed in the scale of factors evaluating work efficiency, recording the achieved work achievements; (b) The need for power is the need to make other people behave the way they want, expressed in the scale of factors of their status and prestige; (c) The need for affiliation is the desire to have friendly and close relationships with others, expressed in the scale of factors of working relationships with leaders and colleagues.

Status, prestige

Relationship

Power

Alliance for Performance Achievement

Figure A1-03: McClelland's achievement theory

McClelland's achievement theory is applied in satisfying the needs of workers to create work motivation. The greater the distribution density of the need for achievement, the higher the level of motivation that brings about the work efficiency of workers, motivating workers to work better than the need for power and the need for affiliation.

1.1.2.4. Expectancy theory of Victor Vroom (1964) [16] :

Vroom's expectancy theory evaluates work motivation to satisfy the job based on expectations about the results of one's work. This model was proposed by Victor Vroom in 1964, then revised and supplemented.

supplemented by several others (Porter and Lawler, 1968). Vroom's expectancy theory is formulated as follows:

Expectations x Means x Attraction = Motivation

- “Expectation” from trying to work hard is the expectation to work and achieve the set goals.

- “Means” to support work performance are factors related to working relationships, working conditions, work autonomy, etc. to complete the work.

- “Attraction” to rewards is the response to the received reward.

compared to the results of their labor and the effort they put into the job.

The combination of these three factors creates employee motivation.

motivated only when their perceptions of all three factors are positive.

EFFORT

(Effort)

PERFORM

(Performance)

AWARD

(Reward)

EXPECTED

(Expectancy)

VEHICLE

(Instrumentality)

REWARD ATTRACTION

(Valence of reward)

MOTIVATION

(Motivation)

CAPACITY &

CHARACTERISTIC

ROLE & OPPORTUNITY AWARENESS

PERFORMING WORK

(Job performance)

Figure A1-04: Vroom's Expectancy Theory

Vroom's expectancy theory is applied in meeting the needs of employees based on their perception, so there needs to be appropriate factor scales that organizations need to build based on the following characteristics:

(a) Effort characteristics to complete the job (selecting the right person for the job, training employees well, assigning tasks clearly, providing necessary information, supervising and collecting feedback, etc.); (b) Performance characteristics that lead to optimal results (measuring the work process appropriately, describing good and bad work results, explaining and applying the reward mechanism according to work results, etc.); (c) Reward characteristics that increase the level of employee satisfaction (ensuring that rewards have material and spiritual value, individual rewards, minimizing differences in the level of satisfaction with results, etc.).

1.1.2.5. Hackman & Oldham's (1975) job characteristics model [8] :

Richard Hackman and Gray Oldham played an important role in building the job characteristics model that creates intrinsic motivation for work performance. Later researchers, Smith & Cronje (1999) and Robbins & Judge (2007), described the three main factors in the model as follows: (a) The experience of work that is interesting and meaningful to the employee; (b) The experience of responsibility for the employee's work results; (c) Perception of work results.

Characteristics affecting 03 main factors in the model:

(a) Very interesting experience in work: variety of skills, determining the nature of work, importance of work.

(b) Experience requires responsibility for work results: independent decision making and thoughtful judgment in planning and determining procedures for completing work.

(c) Awareness of work results: Feedback on work performance to superiors, from which superiors acknowledge and evaluate the employee's achievements as well as criticize and give suggestions to correct errors in work.

The aim of this model is to facilitate the promotion of intrinsic motivation and increase job satisfaction of employees such as creating motivation to work.

high intrinsic job satisfaction, high growth satisfaction, high job satisfaction, high job performance.

Core job characteristics

Necessary psychological condition

Work results

Skill diversity

Define the job

Importance

Right to decide

Feedback

Very interesting experience at work

Experience requires responsibility for work results

Perception of work results

Create high intrinsic motivation

Satisfy high growth

High job satisfaction

High work performance

Awareness and skill training for growth needs

Figure A1-05: Hackman & Oldham's job characteristics model

Hackman & Oldham's job characteristics model has proposed a way to calculate the potential motivation score of employees MPS (Motivating Potential Score). If the MPS index is low, it is clear that employees are not motivated to work, and the work needs to be redesigned and rearranged. If the MPS index is high, employees are accumulating motivation to work.

MPS =

V x I x S	x A x F
3

Maybe you are interested!

In there:

MPS Potential Motivation Weight V Skill Diversity

I Determine the nature of the work

S Importance of work

A Right to decide

F Feedback

Hackman & Oldham's job characteristics model is applied in measuring employee satisfaction to create work motivation.

1.1.2.6. Herzberg's two-factor theory (1959) [9] :

Herzberg's famous two-factor theory has proposed two aspects that influence the level of job satisfaction: (a) The “Motivation” factor that affects in a positive direction and (b) The “Hygiene” factor that affects in a negative direction. This theory suggests that the motivation factor that leads to job satisfaction has an opposite effect to the hygiene factor that leads to job dissatisfaction of employees.

Table 1-01: Characteristics of motivational factors and maintenance factors

Motivation Factor

Hygiene Factor

Achievements

Recognition of achievements

Job responsibilities

Care about work

Higher level job advancement

Growth, maturity

 Working conditions

 Quality of supervision

 Salary

 Company position and status

 Safety

 Teamwork

 Nature of work

 Company policies and regulations

 Personal relationships

Scenario combining motivational and maintenance factors

Good motivation + good retention: Ideal situation, employees are more motivated, less complaints.

Poor motivation + good retention: Situation where employees have few complaints but no

be motivated. Work only receives the right salary.

Good motivation + poor retention: A situation where employees are highly motivated but also complain a lot. Salaries and working conditions are not commensurate.

Poor motivation + poor retention: Worst case scenario, employees are not only unmotivated, but also complain a lot.

Disgruntled and unmotivated employees

(Employees dissatisfied and unmotivated)

Employees not dissatisfied and unmotivated

Maintenance factor

Motivational factors

Source: www.valuebasedmanagement.net/methods_herzberg_two_factor_theory.html

Employees are no longer dissatisfied and motivated

(Employees satisfied and motivated)

Figure A1-06: Herzberg's two-factor theory

In practice, it has been shown that the scales of these two factors have a degree of impact on employee satisfaction. However, some researchers have concluded that Herzberg's maintenance factor does not bring about job satisfaction (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2007).

Herzberg's expectancy theory is applied in measuring employee satisfaction from two perspectives: work motivation factors and work maintenance factors.

1.1.2.7. ERG theory of Clayton P. Alderfer (1969) [6] :

Alderfer's ERG theory identifies the needs that influence employee behavior. This theory is classified into three groups of needs: (a) Existence needs such as hunger, thirst, safety, etc.; (b) Relatedness needs such as relationships with family, friends, colleagues and superiors, etc.; (c) Growth needs such as self-esteem and self-actualization.

Like Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, this theory has three different levels of needs, but the needs of workers can also appear at all three levels at the same time, and this need can compensate for another need if that need is not satisfied by the worker. For example, a worker is not satisfied with the level of difficulty of the job they are doing, but on the contrary, they are compensated in receiving appropriate salary and benefits. Thus, Alderfer's view of ERG theory is completely different from Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, the three needs are considered in three different aspects for workers, their needs appear in all three aspects at the same time: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs.

Alderfer's ERG theory is applied in measuring the level of employee satisfaction under three aspects of needs: existence, relatedness and growth.

SOLIDARITY

EXIST

(Existence)

GROWTH

(Growth)

Note:

Satisfaction / advancement Frustration / reversal Satisfaction / enhancement

Figure A1-07: Alderfer's ERG Theory

1.1.2.8. Overall model of organizational behavior Kreitner & Kinicki (2007) [10] :

In Kreitner & Kinicki's overall organizational behavior model, individual outcomes consist of two components: Job performance; Organizational Commitment.

According to the research theory of the model, most employees have two basic goals in their work: (a) A group of employees try to do their jobs well; (b) The remaining group is cared for as members of the organization. The level of job performance and commitment to the organization also depends on the individual mechanism that affects the employee. Thus, the overall model of organizational behavior analyzes job satisfaction as only an individual mechanism to evaluate the individual results of employees, but must also consider other aspects of the individual mechanism: the problem of accepting work pressure, the problem of creating work motivation, the problem of ethics and legality of the enterprise, the problem of learning and implementing employee decisions.

Behavioral characteristics that influence individual mechanisms: (a) Organizational mechanisms (organizational culture, organizational structure); (b) Group mechanisms (leadership style and behavior, leadership power and influence, work processes according to

group, group characteristics); (c) Individual characteristics (personality & cultural values, abilities).

ORGANIZATIONAL MECHANISM

Organizational Mechanisms

Organizational culture

Organizational structure

GROUP MECHANISM

Group Mechanisms

Style and behavior

leader

Leadership power and influence

Teamwork process

PERSONAL MECHANISM

Individual Mechanisms

Job Satisfaction

Stress

Motivation

Trust, Legal &

morality

PERSONAL RESULTS

Individual Outcomes

Do the job

(Job Performance)

Organizational Commitment

PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS

Individual Characteristics

Group characteristics

Learning & Decision Making

Personality & cultural values

Capacity

Figure A1-08: Kreitner & Kinicki's General Model of Organizational Behavior

Kreitner & Kinicki's general model of organizational behavior is applied in measuring the level of job satisfaction of employees and this level of satisfaction is only a part of the individual evaluation mechanism.

1.1.2.9. Comparison of characteristics of some theories

Some theoretical foundations of employee satisfaction research presented above show that depending on each researcher's perspective, they provide different analysis content on employee satisfaction. Overall, the theoretical foundation of this research topic needs to be summarized on the following 2 groups of aspects of employee satisfaction assessment for the enterprise:

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