Reorganizing the State Management Apparatus on Higher Education Quality in the Direction of Specifically Defining the Responsibilities of State Management Agencies

The State needs to establish an institutional framework for ensuring social responsibility of higher education institutions. This social responsibility framework emphasizes the responsibility of higher education institutions towards the following groups of subjects: i) The State and society in general; ii) learners and families; iii) university human resource users. Higher education must ensure effective implementation of the institutional framework, policies, and macro-orientation of the State on higher education with a focus on quality, fairness, and meeting human resource requirements of each stage of development. Higher education must be truly responsible for the socio-economic development of the locality and the country.

To enhance the social responsibility of higher education institutions, the Ministry of Education and Training can sign agreements on quality assurance with higher education institutions and sign commitments with the Association of Universities. In addition, it is possible to build a Charter on the quality of higher education with a commitment that higher education institutions signing the Charter must ensure quality, and at the same time, will be guaranteed priorities in investment and development.

4.3.4. Reorganize the state management apparatus on the quality of higher education in the direction of specifically defining the responsibilities of state management agencies, distinguishing the state management function and the function of providing public services.

To manage the state on the quality of higher education, organizing a suitable state management apparatus is an issue that needs attention.

Firstly, to innovate the functions and methods of operation of the National Education Council chaired by the Prime Minister in the direction of assisting the Prime Minister in directing the development strategy of education in general and higher education in particular. The National Education Council has a support unit that mobilizes a large number of experts, scientists, educators, economic and social activists... with prestige in different fields to participate in the process of building and evaluating policies, development plans, effectiveness of higher education activities and progress of strategic projects on higher education.

Second , the Ministry of Education and Training together with the Ministry of Labor, War Invalids and Social Affairs perform state management functions as assigned by the Government, focusing on

The three main tasks are: developing strategies, planning and plans for higher education development; developing policies and regulations for managing the content and quality of higher education; and organizing inspections and audits. In particular, it is necessary to focus on inspections and audits to ensure the quality and effectiveness of higher education.

Third, build a mechanism to link higher education with scientific research and the labor market. Strengthen planning, conduct regular forecasting and increase the provision of information on the human resource needs of society to orient training for higher education institutions so that universities and colleges can regulate the scale, occupational structure, and training level to suit the needs of the socio-economic sector. To do this, it is necessary to establish a human resource forecasting center under the Ministry of Education and Training. In addition, to strengthen the connection between scientific research and higher education, it is possible to study the establishment of a Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research to regulate the higher education system in general, creating momentum for the development of higher education quality.

Fourth, decentralize the management of planning, planning and investment for development of higher education. The Government unifies the management of planning for the network and structure of universities nationwide, including the overall planning for the development of universities by type, scale structure, quality structure (high quality, mass quality and local universities). The Ministry of Education and Training and relevant ministries and branches shall study and submit to the Government plans for specific types of schools to help develop the sector internally and serve the development of the central and local economy. Based on the overall planning of the whole country, of the sector, of the region, the People's Committees of provinces and cities shall develop local-level plans to submit to the Government on the need for universities in their localities. Develop a strategy for developing higher education and a 5-year plan as well as annual steps for the modernization of universities. The Ministry of Education and Training shall proactively coordinate with relevant ministries and sectors to study and propose to the Government the scale and resources for investment in higher education. Provinces and cities with universities have the right to decide to use local budgets and other sources of revenue to build and develop higher education to serve the provincial level.

Fifth , decentralize the management of the state budget and other sources of revenue. Clearly define the rights and responsibilities for managing and using the state budget of ministries, branches and organizations with universities. The Government authorizes the Ministry of Education and Training to coordinate with the Ministry of Finance to manage the state budget to build and develop higher education. The Ministry of Education and Training coordinates with the Ministry of Finance to develop and promulgate legal documents to create conditions for universities to be proactive in their autonomy and responsibility to have many sources of revenue and reasonable expenditure according to the development process of the school.

Sixth, decentralize the management of assets and facilities. Clearly define the rights and responsibilities of state management of land and facilities for public universities. Provincial and municipal People's Committees plan and create favorable conditions for non-public universities in possible conditions so that these universities can use their own revenue to build and develop their schools. Clearly define the rights to manage and use assets and facilities of universities in the direction of: national assets, local assets and the school's own assets, ensuring autonomy and responsibility for universities.

Seventh , decentralization of management of organization and personnel. The Government decides on the establishment, dissolution, separation, and merger of universities. The internal organization of the school (apparatus and personnel) is left to the school to decide. Based on the staffing standards prescribed by the Government, the Ministries, branches, and localities with schools decide on the total staffing for universities. The specific staffing levels are left to the school to decide, moving towards abolishing the staffing system. The titles of professor, associate professor, and other teaching positions of the school in the university education system are left to the state's guidance.

Eighth , with the scale of the current university system being increasingly expanded, the management of accreditation work needs a large enough apparatus, capable of managing and ensuring the quality of accreditation work. Currently, in Vietnam, the Department of Testing and Quality Assurance is identified as the specialized management agency for testing and quality assurance. In some countries, the state management agency for higher education quality assurance is located in the Ministry of Education and Training.

apparatus of an educational management department. In some countries, the state management agency for quality assessment is a government agency operating with funding from the Ministry of Finance. Choosing the model of a state management agency for educational quality assessment is an important issue to ensure the effectiveness of the management process. In the current period, we can continue to use the model of a state management agency for assessment under the Ministry of Education and Training, but it is necessary to expand the scale of this agency. The Department of Testing and Quality Assessment must truly be a state management agency for quality assessment with a system of specialized departments and managers in the areas of assessment. At the same time, the Department of Testing and Quality Assessment also separates the function of providing public services on educational quality assessment with the establishment of the Center for Educational Quality Assessment. Separating the two functions: state management function and public service provision function is necessary for the state management agency on quality inspection to focus resources on the goal of managing quality inspection work.

In the long term, state management of higher education quality assessment will be a major issue in state management of education in our country. Higher education itself, according to the provisions of the 2005 Education Law, includes college, university and postgraduate education. The implementation of educational commitments will lead to the formation and development of many domestic and foreign higher education institutions in our country. Those educational institutions in our country need to be managed for quality to prevent the risk of exporting low-quality education and commercializing higher education. The responsibility of state management of assessment will become even more burdensome. Therefore, we also need a project to establish a state management agency for higher education quality under the Government. This state management agency will be an agency responsible for comprehensively managing the work of educational quality assessment, in which the content of state management of higher education quality assessment is a major content.

Another option also proposed here is to establish a higher education management agency at the general department level such as the General Department of Higher Education. In this General Department, there is a specialized management agency for the quality of higher education. The formation of the agency

Specialized and specialized higher education management agencies will specifically identify management subjects and enhance the responsibility of state management agencies for the quality of higher education.

Ninth, it is necessary to study and consider the formation of an intermediary organization between the Ministry of Education and Training and higher education institutions, to reduce the workload of state management agencies on higher education.

4.3.5. Improving the quality of staff and civil servants working in state management of higher education

The quality of the staff and civil servants determines the quality and effectiveness of state management of higher education. To create a new step forward in state management of higher education quality, the staff and civil servants need to be improved appropriately. Improving the quality of the staff and civil servants has a direct impact on the quality of institutions and the effectiveness of implementing state management institutions on the quality of higher education in practice.

State management of higher education quality is closely linked to the development of policies, standards, appraisal, assessment, publication of accreditation results and the development of policies related to accreditation. Therefore, improving the quality of cadres and civil servants doing state management work is an important issue that determines the effectiveness of state management. The quality of cadres and civil servants here includes knowledge, skills and attitudes. The first issue that needs attention is improving the level of legislative activities, rule-making, legal level, legal quality, and feasibility of laws related to state management of higher education quality accreditation.

To achieve these goals, there are many decisive factors such as: new legal thinking on education and training, the Party's policies and guidelines, the capacity of legal officers and legal agencies, educational management agencies, coordination between state agencies, democratization of legislative and executive activities, etc. In particular, it is necessary to focus on solving the following issues:

Improve the level of legislative and regulatory activities, improve the legal level in education and training management by law and strengthen social law.

Socialism requires the construction of a system of legal documents on higher education that is complete in quantity and ensures quality. It is necessary to build a team of legal staff with comprehensive knowledge of education, economics, law and politics, with the ability to draft documents and the capacity to implement the law in the conditions of the new mechanism. The terms used in legal documents on quality assessment of higher education need to be clear, concise, accurate and easy to understand, not using terms that are difficult to perceive, ambiguous, which can easily lead to inconsistent implementation and create loopholes, distortions and exploitation. In addition, with the goal of effectively implementing the work of assessing and evaluating the quality of higher education towards a quality and professional education, the education sector needs to focus on training experts and assessors who are not only good at their profession but also honest "judges", consultants, ready to help educational institutions solve difficulties in the process of applying quality assessment standards.

To improve the quality of the staff and civil servants working in state management, it is necessary to have a plan to train and foster the staff and civil servants managing the state on the quality of quality higher education. Every year, the Ministry of Education and Training needs to allocate a budget to encourage staff and international students to study the fields of accreditation, assessment, and improvement of school quality and efficiency. This will help develop the necessary human resources to implement initiatives and efforts to improve the quality of higher education in Vietnam in the future. Training can be carried out in many different forms (long-term and short-term training; training programs with or without degrees...). Along with improving the qualifications of the staff and civil servants managing the state on the quality of higher education, the issue of public service ethics also needs attention. The staff and civil servants must be truly impartial and objective in the management and evaluation process, and have a sense of responsibility for their work.

4.3.6. Perfecting inspection, examination and supervision work in state management of university education quality

Maintain discipline and ensure principles in state management of higher education; turn the inspection and examination process into a process of self-inspection and examination within the university.

higher education institutions; ensuring equity and contributing to improving the quality and effectiveness of higher education.

Strengthening and ensuring the autonomy and self-responsibility of higher education institutions will only be truly effective when carried out together with strengthening the state management of the Ministry of Education and Training as well as other ministries and branches. Organizing the inspection and examination system of higher education institutions at the ministerial level needs to focus on inspecting and examining the main management contents in compliance with regulations on higher education management. Inspection and examination activities at the ministerial level need to be innovated in form as well as implementation methods, ensuring quality, but in principle should not replace the inspection and examination activities of educational institutions, it is necessary to guide the inspection and examination work of institutions as a consultant. On the other hand, it is also necessary to focus on inspection and examination activities at the ministerial level. In the current period, inspection and examination work needs to focus on the state management contents of higher education as well as enrollment work; financial regime, tuition fees, granting of certificates and ensuring training quality...

Inspection and examination activities need to be innovated in the direction of being "consultants" in the training process for educational institutions. In order for inspection and examination to promote its important meaning, inspection and examination units need to have inspection and examination plans focusing on key issues such as ensuring the conformity of training content with the goals and missions of the industry and educational institutions.

It is necessary to focus on building a team of inspectors and examiners with sufficient capacity, experience, courage to think, courage to do, not afraid of collisions and good moral qualities through training, professional development, equipping and updating knowledge, skills, learning from experiences of countries with advanced education so that the inspection team can complete their work well.

4.4. Survey the urgency, feasibility and conditions to ensure the implementation of the solution

4.4.1. Survey the urgency and feasibility of solutions

To determine the necessity and feasibility of the proposed solutions, based on the proposed opinions of state management officials at the Ministry of Education and Training and the survey opinions of management officials at the Diplomatic Academy, Hanoi Foreign Trade University and the University of Social Sciences and Humanities. With 120 survey forms, of which 90 were from higher education institutions and 30 from management units, the survey results showed that the proposed solutions are suitable for practical requirements. The necessity and feasibility of the proposed solutions are shown in the following table:

Table 4.3. Survey results on the necessity and feasibility of solutions

TT

Solution	Necessity		Feasibility
	Midpoint jar	Rank	Midpoint jar	Rank
1	Innovating state management of higher education quality towards enhancing autonomy and accountability of higher education institutions	2.95	3	2.88	3
2	Complete strategies, planning, and plans for higher education development (on orientation for higher education development, faculty development, and allocation policies). finance by output quality)	2.96	2	2.91	2
3	Perfecting the state management institution on the quality of higher education (institution on quality assessment, establishment of independent accreditation organizations, stratification of higher education, institution on autonomy, accountability). programs of higher education institutions)	2.98	1	2.93	1
4	Reorganize the state management apparatus higher education	2.93	4	2.58	6
5	Improve the quality of staff and civil servants doing state management work on higher education	2.93	4	2.87	4
6	Perfecting inspection and control institutions higher education institution	2.9	6	2.79	5

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• Qos Assurance Methods for Multimedia Communications zt2i3t4l5ee zt2a3gs zt2a3ge zc2o3n4t5e6n7ts low. The EF PHB requires a sufficiently large number of output ports to provide low delay, low loss, and low jitter. EF PHBs can be implemented if the output port's bandwidth is sufficiently large, combined with small buffer sizes and other network resources dedicated to EF packets, to allow the router's service rate for EF packets on an output port to exceed the arrival rate λ of packets at that port. This means that packets with PHB EF are considered with a pre-allocated amount of output bandwidth and a priority that ensures minimum loss, minimum delay and minimum jitter before being put into operation. PHB EF is suitable for channel simulation, leased line simulation, and real-time services such as voice, video without compromising on high loss, delay and jitter values. Figure 2.10 Example of EF installation Figure 2.10 shows an example of an EF PHB implementation. This is a simple priority queue scheduling technique. At the edges of the DS domain, EF packet traffic is prioritized according to the values ​​agreed upon by the SLA. The EF queue in the figure needs to output packets at a rate higher than the packet arrival rate λ. To provide an EF PHB over an end-to-end DS domain, bandwidth at the output ports of the core routers needs to be allocated in advance to ensure the requirement μ > λ. This can be done by a pre-configured provisioning process. In the figure, EF packets are placed in the priority queue (the upper queue). With such a length, the queue can operate with μ > λ. Since EF was primarily used for real-time services such as voice and video, and since real-time services use UDP instead of TCP, RED is generally not suitable for EF queues because applications using UDP will not respond to random packet drop and RED will strip unnecessary packets. 2.2.4.2 Assured Forwarding (AF) PHB PHB AF is defined by RFC 2597. The purpose of PHB AF is to deliver packets reliably and therefore delay and jitter are considered less important than packet loss. PHB AF is suitable for non-real-time services such as applications using TCP. PHB AF first defines four classes: AF1, AF2, AF3, AF4. For each of these AF classes, packets are then classified into three subclasses with three distinct priority levels. Table 2.8 shows the four AF classes and 12 AF subclasses and the DSCP values ​​for the 12 AF subclasses defined by RFC 2597. RFC 2597 also allows for more than three separate priority levels to be added for internal use. However, these separate priority levels will only have internal significance. PHB Class PHB Subclass Package type DSCP AF4 AF41 Short 100010 AF42 Medium 100100 AF43 High 100110 AF3 AF31 Short 011010 AF32 Medium 011100 AF33 High 011110 AF2 AF21 Short 010010 AF22 Medium 010100 AF23 High 010110 AF1 AF11 Short 001010 AF12 Medium 001100 AF13 High 001110 Table 2.8 AF DSCPs The AF PHB ensures that packets are forwarded with a high probability of delivery to the destination within the bounds of the rate agreed upon in an SLA. If AF traffic at an ingress port exceeds the pre-priority rate, which is considered non-compliant or “out of profile”, the excess packets will not be delivered to the destination with the same probability as the packets belonging to the defined traffic or “in profile” packets. When there is network congestion, the out of profile packets are dropped before the in profile packets are dropped. When service levels are defined using AF classes, different quantity and quality between AF classes can be realized by allocating different amounts of bandwidth and buffer space to the four AF classes. Unlike EF, most AF traffic is non-real-time traffic using TCP, and the RED queue management strategy is an AQM (Adaptive Queue Management) strategy suitable for use in AF PHBs. The four AF PHB layers can be implemented as four separate queues. The output port bandwidth is divided into four AF queues. For each AF queue, packets are marked with three “colors” corresponding to three separate priority levels. In addition to the 32 DSCP 1 groups defined in Table 2.8, 21 DSCPs have been standardized as follows: one for PHB EF, 12 for PHB AF, and 8 for CSCP. There are 11 DSCP 1 groups still available for other standards. 2.2.5.Example of Differentiated Services We will look at an example of the Differentiated Service model and mechanism of operation. The architecture of Differentiated Service consists of two basic sets of functions: Edge functions: include packet classification and traffic conditioning. At the inbound edge of the network, incoming packets are marked. In particular, the DS field in the packet header is set to a certain value. For example, in Figure 2.12, packets sent from H1 to H3 are marked at R1, while packets from H2 to H4 are marked at R2. The labels on the received packets identify the service class to which they belong. Different traffic classes receive different services in the core network. The RFC definition uses the term behavior aggregate rather than the term traffic class. After being marked, a packet can be forwarded immediately into the network, delayed for a period of time before being forwarded, or dropped. We will see that there are many factors that affect how a packet is marked, and whether it is forwarded immediately, delayed, or dropped. Figure 2.12 DiffServ Example Core functionality: When a DS-marked packet arrives at a Diffservcapable router, the packet is forwarded to the next router based on Per-hop behavior is associated with packet classes. Per-hop behavior affects router buffers and the bandwidth shared between competing classes. An important principle of the Differentiated Service architecture is that a router's per-hop behavior is based only on the packet's marking or the class to which it belongs. Therefore, if packets sent from H1 to H3 as shown in the figure receive the same marking as packets from H2 to H4, then the network routers treat the packets exactly the same, regardless of whether the packet originated from H1 or H2. For example, R3 does not distinguish between packets from h1 and H2 when forwarding packets to R4. Therefore, the Differentiated Service architecture avoids the need to maintain router state about separate source-destination pairs, which is important for network scalability. Chapter Conclusion Chapter 2 has presented and clarified two main models of deploying and installing quality of service in IP networks. While the traditional best-effort model has many disadvantages, later models such as IntServ and DiffServ have partly solved the problems that best-effort could not solve. IntServ follows the direction of ensuring quality of service for each separate flow, it is built similar to the circuit switching model with the use of the RSVP resource reservation protocol. IntSer is suitable for services that require fixed bandwidth that is not shared such as VoIP services, multicast TV services. However, IntSer has disadvantages such as using a lot of network resources, low scalability and lack of flexibility. DiffServ was born with the idea of ​​solving the disadvantages of the IntServ model. DiffServ follows the direction of ensuring quality based on the principle of hop-by-hop behavior based on the priority of marked packets. The policy for different types of traffic is decided by the administrator and can be changed according to reality, so it is very flexible. DiffServ makes better use of network resources, avoiding idle bandwidth and processing capacity on routers. In addition, the DifServ model can be deployed on many independent domains, so the ability to expand the network becomes easy. Chapter 3: METHODS TO ENSURE QoS FOR MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATIONS In packet-switched networks, different packet flows often have to share the transmission medium all the way to the destination station. To ensure the fair and efficient allocation of bandwidth to flows, appropriate serving mechanisms are required at network nodes, especially at gateways or routers, where many different data flows often pass through. The scheduler is responsible for serving packets of the selected flow and deciding which packet will be served next. Here, a flow is understood as a set of packets belonging to the same priority class, or originating from the same source, or having the same source and destination addresses, etc. In normal state when there is no congestion, packets will be sent as soon as they are delivered. In case of congestion, if QoS assurance methods are not applied, prolonged congestion can cause packet drops, affecting service quality. In some cases, congestion is prolonged and widespread in the network, which can easily lead to the network being "frozen", or many packets being dropped, seriously affecting service quality. Therefore, in this chapter, in sections 3.2 and 3.3, we introduce some typical network traffic load monitoring techniques to predict and prevent congestion before it occurs through the measure of dropping (removing) packets early when there are signs of impending congestion. 3.1. DropTail method DropTail is a simple, traditional queue management method based on FIFO mechanism. All incoming packets are placed in the queue, when the queue is full, the later packets are dropped. Due to its simplicity and ease of implementation, DropTail has been used for many years on Internet router systems. However, this algorithm has the following disadvantages: − Cannot avoid the phenomenon of “Lock out”: Occurs when 1 or several traffic streams monopolize the queue, making packets of other connections unable to pass through the router. This phenomenon greatly affects reliable transmission protocols such as TCP. According to the anti-congestion algorithm, when locked out, the TCP connection stream will reduce the window size and reduce the packet transmission speed exponentially. − Can cause Global Synchronization: This is the result of a severe “Lock out” phenomenon. Some neighboring routers have their queues monopolized by a number of connections, causing a series of other TCP connections to be unable to pass through and simultaneously reducing the transmission speed. After those monopolized connections are temporarily suspended, Once the queue is cleared, it takes a considerable amount of time for TCP connections to return to their original speed. − Full Queue phenomenon: Data transmitted on the Internet often has an explosion, packets arriving at the router are often in clusters rather than in turn. Therefore, the operating mechanism of DropTail makes the queue easily full for a long period of time, leading to the average delay time of large packets. To avoid this phenomenon, with DropTail, the only way is to increase the router's buffer, this method is very expensive and ineffective. − No QoS guarantee: With the DropTail mechanism, there is no way to prioritize important packets to be transmitted through the router earlier when all are in the queue. Meanwhile, with multimedia communication, ensuring connection and stable speed is extremely important and the DropTail algorithm cannot satisfy. The problem of choosing the buffer size of the routers in the network is to “absorb” short bursts of traffic without causing too much queuing delay. This is necessary in bursty data transmission. The queue size determines the size of the packet bursts (traffic spikes) that we want to be able to transmit without being dropped at the routers. In IP-based application networks, packet dropping is an important mechanism for indirectly reporting congestion to end stations. A solution that prevents router queues from filling up while reducing the packet drop rate is called dynamic queue management. 3.2. Random elimination method – RED 3.2.1 Overview RED (Random Early Detection of congestion; Random Early Drop) is one of the first AQM algorithms proposed in 1993 by Sally Floyd and Van Jacobson, two scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory of the University of California, USA. Due to its outstanding advantages compared to previous queue management algorithms, RED has been widely installed and deployed on the Internet. The most fundamental point of their work is that the most effective place to detect congestion and react to it is at the gateway or router. Source entities (senders) can also do this by estimating end-to-end delay, throughput variability, or the rate of packet retransmissions due to drop. However, the sender and receiver view of a particular connection cannot tell which gateways on the network are congested, and cannot distinguish between propagation delay and queuing delay. Only the gateway has a true view of the state of the queue, the link share of the connections passing through it at any given time, and the quality of service requirements of the traffic flows. The RED gateway monitors the average queue length, which detects early signs of impending congestion (average queue length exceeding a predetermined threshold) and reacts appropriately in one of two ways: − Drop incoming packets with a certain probability, to indirectly inform the source of congestion, the source needs to reduce the transmission rate to keep the queue from filling up, maintaining the ability to absorb incoming traffic spikes. − Mark “congestion” with a certain probability in the ECN field in the header of TCP packets to notify the source (the receiving entity will copy this bit into the acknowledgement packet). Figure 3. 1 RED algorithm The main goal of RED is to avoid congestion by keeping the average queue size within a sufficiently small and stable region, which also means keeping the queuing delay sufficiently small and stable. Achieving this goal also helps: avoid global synchronization, not resist bursty traffic flows (i.e. flows with low average throughput but high volatility), and maintain an upper bound on the average queue size even in the absence of cooperation from transport layer protocols. To achieve the above goals, RED gateways must do the following: − The first is to detect congestion early and react appropriately to keep the average queue size small enough to keep the network operating in the low latency, high throughput region, while still allowing the queue size to fluctuate within a certain range to absorb short-term fluctuations. As discussed above, the gateway is the most appropriate place to detect congestion and is also the most appropriate place to decide which specific connection to report congestion to. − The second thing is to notify the source of congestion. This is done by marking and notifying the source to reduce traffic. Normally the RED gateway will randomly drop packets. However, if congestion If congestion is detected before the queue is full, it should be combined with packet marking to signal congestion. The RED gateway has two options: drop or mark; where marking is done by marking the ECN field of the packet with a certain probability, to signal the source to reduce the traffic entering the network. − An important goal that RED gateways need to achieve is to avoid global synchronization and not to resist traffic flows that have a sudden characteristic. Global synchronization occurs when all connections simultaneously reduce their transmission window size, leading to a severe drop in throughput at the same time. On the other hand, Drop Tail or Random Drop strategies are very sensitive to sudden flows; that is, the gateway queue will often overflow when packets from these flows arrive. To avoid these two phenomena, gateways can use special algorithms to detect congestion and decide which connections will be notified of congestion at the gateway. The RED gateway randomly selects incoming packets to mark; with this method, the probability of marking a packet from a particular connection is proportional to the connection's shared bandwidth at the gateway. − Another goal is to control the average queue size even without cooperation from the source entities. This can be done by dropping packets when the average size exceeds an upper threshold (instead of marking it). This approach is necessary in cases where most connections have transmission times that are less than the round-trip time, or where the source entities are not able to reduce traffic in response to marking or dropping packets (such as UDP flows). 3.2.2 Algorithm This section describes the algorithm for RED gateways. RED gateways calculate the average queue size using a low-pass filter. This average queue size is compared with two thresholds: minth and maxth. When the average queue size is less than the lower threshold, no incoming packets are marked or dropped; when the average queue size is greater than the upper threshold, all incoming packets are dropped. When the average queue size is between minth and maxth, each incoming packet is marked or dropped with a probability pa, where pa is a function of the average queue size avg; the probability of marking or dropping a packet for a particular connection is proportional to the bandwidth share of that connection at the gateway. 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