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Color Changes of Mucosal Membranes

- Ultrasound helps diagnose pregnancy early and accurately;

- Diagnose gestational age, monitor fetal development;

- Detect pregnancy diseases such as: ectopic pregnancy, stillbirth, placental abruption.

- Helps diagnose birth defects of the fetus.

In obstetrics: Pathologies detected by ultrasound include: uterine fibroids, ovarian tumors, adnexal abscesses, hydrosalpinx, ultrasound also monitors the development of ovarian follicles in infertility treatment.

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In addition, ultrasound is also applied in orthopedic trauma to tendons, muscles, bones, and joints.

In short, ultrasound is a modern diagnostic tool that helps veterinarians detect diseases quickly and accurately. With its flexible, harmless properties and the ability to examine many times, many organs at the same time, the animal is completely comfortable and safe.

Diagnostic ultrasound has a clear advantage over X-ray, however in reality no diagnostic means is universal. Despite its advantages, ultrasound still needs clinical support and other diagnostic means ( Lam Dong Science and Technology Information , No. 2.1993).

d . Diagnosis by X - ray method​

In addition to clinical examination, ultrasound and X-ray also play an important role in diagnosis.

diagnose diseases of the respiratory, cardiovascular and skeletal systems.

The basic component of an X-ray machine is the X-ray generator, which contains one or more X-ray tubes. This unit, usually suspended or mounted on a column or other support with a rotating and height-adjusting mechanism, is equipped with a special power supply system consisting of a set of transformers, rectifiers, etc., using energy from a certain source, usually the mains, to raise the current to the appropriate voltage. In addition, the structural characteristics of X-ray machines vary according to the intended use.

Based on the properties of Roentgen rays, which can penetrate objects that normal light cannot penetrate and are absorbed more if the material has a larger density, these machines mainly include:

1. X-ray machine, in which X-rays are used to project onto a suitable screen, as a shadow or a light, an internal image of the area of ​​the body passed through the beam.

2. X-ray machine, in which the X-rays leave the irradiated area and impact a photographic plate or film. The same machine can perform both the scanning and imaging functions.

3. X-ray cameras, in which, unlike the previous ones, the image on the screen of the scanner is recorded by the camera. With X-ray cameras of this group, it must be understood that it is a whole consisting of an X-ray machine linked to a very special type of camera, both presented simultaneously although they must be separated for ease of transport. In contrast, the camera is purely in its own mode.

IV . Medical examination procedure

To diagnose animal diseases, to avoid missing symptoms, examination should follow a certain order below:

1. Animal health registration​

Livestock records. It has forensic significance in terms of quarantine and slaughter.

- Name or number of livestock.

- Types of livestock: buffalo, cows, horses... different types of livestock get sick: horses get typhus, buffalo and cows often get anthrax, pigs get stamps. Due to different anatomical characteristics, some types of livestock get sick that other livestock don't. For example, buffalo and cows often get pericarditis caused by foreign objects, while horses don't. The medicine used to treat diseases also depends on the type of livestock.

- Male or female. Because males and females get different diseases. Urethral stones are common in males; females often get endometritis and urethritis. Female cattle also have symptoms when in heat that are easily suspected of being sick.

- Cattle breeds are related to diseases. Dutch cattle imported into Vietnam are susceptible to parasites.

bloodline than local yellow cattle.

- Age of livestock. Determining the age clearly helps in diagnosis. Piglets within 1 month of age often have diarrhea due to indigestion (dipepsia), 2-6 month old piglets have diarrhea due to worms, parasitic worms, and cold. Old livestock often have heart failure and emphysema. Knowing the age helps in calculating the dosage of medicine and determining the prognosis.

- What are livestock used for?

- Body weight, to determine the dosage of medication.

- Fur color to record livestock characteristics.

2. Ask about medical history​

Before examining the animal, the owner must ask questions about the animal's illness and medical history. There are cases where the owner recounts the animal's medical history in an unbiased and untrue manner. Therefore, during the investigation, it is necessary to know how to choose inappropriate points to ask again in detail.

Medical history content.

- Time of raising cattle: newly brought cattle may stop eating because they are unfamiliar. Newly moved cattle are susceptible to E. coli.

- Food, water, barn, management? Damp, drafty barns can easily cause pneumonia; eating dry straw and lack of water can lead to ileus, which in horses often causes intestinal obstruction.

- Local disease situation. Many diseases are spread locally such as swine fever,

pig stamp....recurs occasionally.

- Duration of illness. From the length of illness to diagnose the cause of the disease, the nature of the disease and also to determine the prognosis of the disease.

- Number of infected animals, number of dead animals and visible symptoms. Many sick animals may be due to infectious disease or poisoning.

The symptoms the homeowner describes can suggest a diagnosis. For example, a horse struggling in pain is often a symptom of colic; cattle having difficulty walking, not being able to eat... could be due to tetanus.

- What is the cause? Sometimes the homeowner knows the cause of the disease, sometimes they have to be prompted to deduce it.

- What medicine was used, dosage and treatment results. From there we can deduce the disease.

After investigating the medical history, it is necessary to systematically collect documents, analyze and compare them to find any connections between them and from there predict a diagnosis.

3. Clinical examination ( on site )

Including: medical history, general examination, examination of organs in the body: circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary system, nervous system, blood and blood-forming organs.

However, it is not necessary for all animals to be examined according to the above content, but depending on the specific case, it is decided to examine in depth and meticulously which organs and parts of the animal. When necessary, it is completely possible to change the examination order and method depending on the specific diagnostic requirements. Note: when the disease is known to be in a certain organ or tissue in the body, it is not allowed to ignore or examine other parts carelessly. There are cases that can be diagnosed after only one examination, but many cases have to be examined many times. In the re-examination, depending on the specific requirements, choose the appropriate examination method to examine longer and mainly examine the organs suspected of being sick.

Special examination methods are only used when necessary. Commonly used special examination methods in veterinary medicine: X-ray, endoscopy, ultrasound, sinus puncture, functional tests, blood tests, feces, urine tests... It is necessary to have a firm grasp of the diagnostic requirements of each specific case to choose the appropriate examination content and method.

Requirements of the diagnostic process​​​​​​

The following contents need to be clarified:

- Location of diseased organs and tissues in the body.

- Nature of the disease.

- The form and extent of disorders in the patient's body.

- Cause of disease.

A disease process is often complex. No matter how meticulous the diagnosis is, it is difficult to detect all the changes in the disease process, and to answer all the above questions. The more detailed and multifaceted the clinical examination, the more accurate the diagnosis. The diagnostic conclusion may change according to the disease process.


TEST QUESTION​​​


CHAPTER I:

1. Diagnostic classification?

2. Clinical examination methods for livestock?

Chapter 2 General examination

Includes examination of the animal's condition, examination of mucous membranes, hair and skin, and measurement of body temperature.

I. Examination of livestock condition

1. Animal constitution​​​

Apply observation method, when necessary use ruler to measure.

Cattle have good bones: strong, well-proportioned body, 2 large, even legs, strong, round joints, full muscles; large and evenly curved ribs, narrow rib cage, wide chest, large abdominal capacity.

Poor bone structure: flabby and thin muscles, flat chest, long and wide body, often sick, difficult to heal and often has a poor prognosis.



2. Nutrition​​​

State of stock animals

Nutritional status reflects body condition.

Well-nourished cattle: round body, shiny skin, even and smooth hair, round and firm muscles. Poorly-nourished cattle: dry skin, rough hair, dry bones, flat chest.

Long-term malnutrition is often caused by undereating, digestive disorders, chronic diseases, often seen in livestock with parasites such as: liver flukes in cattle, roundworms in calves.

3. Cattle Pose​​

Normal posture of cattle:

- After eating their fill, buffaloes and cows often lie down, with their four legs together under their bellies, licking their fur or chewing their cud. People who come near them sometimes stand up, sometimes not.

- Goats and sheep eat in flocks; after eating they usually lie down; when someone comes, they get up.

- Horses usually stand with three legs straight and one leg bent, alternating legs to rest. When lying down, the legs are straight, and when someone comes, they stand up.

- The pig heard the sound of food being poured into the trough, ran to it, ate its fill, and then lay down to sleep.

Sick posture of cattle:

- Stiffness: tetanus, peritonitis, diseases that cause severe respiratory obstruction, some neurological diseases in cattle that cause stiffness.

- Cattle with tetanus have straight body, 4 legs spread out, difficulty walking, tail curled back,

Head erect and stiff. These symptoms are particularly typical in horses.

Sore throat, pleurisy: sick animals move less, breathe less, have difficulty raising their heads, and their bodies seem stiff.

Neurological diseases: hydrocephalus, chronic food poisoning, slow reflexes such as stupor, acute cases of animals standing motionless.

Severe vaginitis, the animal rarely walks. If forced to walk, the hind legs are spread wide, the back is arched, and the tail is raised.

Note: old horses often walk less and have difficulty getting up and lying down.

- Unsteady standing: colic in horses, uterine torsion in cattle, intussusception, staggering disease, often falling down, sweating.

- Compulsive movements: due to neurological diseases often have the following forms:

+ Circular movement: the animal rotates in a circle that gets bigger or smaller. Sometimes the animal rotates in a circle that gets bigger, then smaller, and finally rotates around a point.

Due to damage to the cerebellum, cerebrum, diseases that increase intracranial pressure: sheep brain tapeworm, intracranial tumors, Newcastle, avian influenza.

+ Clockwise movement: the animal rotates around one leg. Due to vestibular nerve paralysis, damage to the cerebellum.

+Running forward with head raised or bent down, sometimes falling down. Injury to

motor center in the brain

+ Head jerking backwards: this symptom is seen when cattle have their cerebellum cut, causing neck muscles to spasm.

+ Rolling: this symptom occurs in small livestock and poultry. The animal falls and rolls around. Damage to the vestibular nerve or cerebellum. Lying with the head tilted to one side is a very typical symptom of postpartum paralysis in dairy cows, or ketosis. Also due to vestibular nerve paralysis or damage to one side of the motor center or severe circulatory and respiratory disorders, heatstroke, sunstroke, equine colic syndrome.

4. Animal condition (Constitutio )

Body condition is the concept of the general characteristics of the body; it includes not only the external form but also the organizational and functional characteristics of the internal organs, and the interrelationships between those characteristics.

Physical condition is often hereditary and can also be changed by living conditions.

According to Pavlov's neurological theory, physical condition is formed by neurological factors.

In clinical practice, physical condition is often divided into 4 types (according to Cu-le-sop):

Rough type: large bones, heavy head, thick and rough skin, coarse and hard, uneven coat; eats a lot but poor work performance.

Slim type: small bones, 4 small legs, thin skin, short and smooth hair. This type of cattle has a strong metabolism, reacts quickly to external stimuli, and is very sensitive.

Stocky type: strong body, firm and firm muscles, shiny and soft skin. This type of cattle is agile, high productivity, good resistance.

Flaccid type: lots of meat, thick fat, rough body, slow movement, poor disease resistance, poor work productivity.

Physical condition classification is important in livestock assessment, diagnosis and prognosis determination during disease treatment.

II. Examination of the mucous membranes

1. diagnostic meaning​​​​

Through examination of the mucosa, we can know the health status of the livestock. We can know the circulatory state, blood composition and respiratory status. External mucosa such as eye mucosa, oral mucosa, vulva mucosa can all be examined. But in clinical practice, examination of eye mucosa is commonly used. Because the eye mucosa is less keratinized, the blood vessels are evenly distributed, the color of the eye mucosa is easily changed when the body is sick. For example: when the body has hepatitis, the eye mucosa appears yellow. When the body has respiratory disorders, the eye mucosa is purple. When the body has a high fever, the eye mucosa is red. Normal conjunctiva is pink. Buffalo, cow: red conjunctiva, little light; horse conjunctiva is dark red; in pigs, goats and sheep: the color of the conjunctiva is very easy to change, so when examining, you need to be gentle, avoid strong stimulation.

2. Examination method

Horse : to examine the left eye, the examiner stands on the left side of the horse, holding the reins with the left hand to steady the horse. The right index finger presses firmly on the skin covering the upper eye socket, the left finger pulls back the skin of the lower eye socket to expose the mucosa; the remaining three fingers are placed on the outer part of the upper eye socket as a fulcrum. If examining the right side, the examiner's standing position is reversed .

Buffalo, cow: can examine mucosa in the above way. Another way: hold the two horns tightly with both hands, bend them to one side to expose the mucosa.

Or one hand holding the horn, one hand grabbing the nose, bending the head back, the mucosa is also quite clearly exposed.

How to examine the mucosa

Pigs , goats, sheep : use index finger and thumb or both hands to spread open both eyelids to see the mucosa .

3. Changes in the color of the mucous membrane​​​​

Pale mucous membranes : a symptom of anemia. Due to systemic anemia, or just partial anemia .

head; low blood volume or low hemoglobin.

Depending on the level of anemia, the mucosa is light pink, yellow...

Chronic pale mucous membranes or the entire herd: due to poor food, housing, parasitic diseases, chronic diseases (enteritis, tuberculosis...), leukemia. In horses, infectious anemia is also seen.

Acute pale mucosa: due to acute blood loss such as rupture of large vessels, rupture of liver, rupture of spleen, rupture of stomach and intestines.

In horses, intestinal volvulus, intussusception, severe abdominal pain, pale mucosa.

Red mucous membranes: small blood vessels in the mucous membranes are congested, causing the mucous membranes to turn red. Note that in hot weather, heavy labor, over-excitement, heatstroke, and sunstroke, the mucous membranes of the eyes also turn red.

Local redness: small blood vessels in the conjunctiva of the eye are congested and dilated; in some cases they are as prominent as tree roots.

Due to cerebral congestion, encephalitis, cerebral hematoma, jugular vein compression. Due to heart and lung disease causing blood clots in the blood vessels.

Redness spreads: small blood vessels and red mucous membranes.

Due to infectious diseases: anthrax, septicemia, swine fever..., encephalomyelitis; lung and heart diseases, diseases that increase the volume of the abdominal cavity, compressing the diaphragm, causing severe circulatory and respiratory disorders; seen in bloating and rumen overeating in buffaloes, cows and cases of poisoning.

Hemorrhagic erythema: red mucosa with hemorrhagic spots.

Due to acute or chronic infectious diseases causing bleeding; severe anemia such as anthrax, septicemia and swine fever.

Mucosal jaundice : due to accumulation of bile pigment (bilirubin ) in the blood. The severity of jaundice depends on the amount of bile pigment and the color of the mucosa. The mucosa is white, the jaundice is clear. In horses , the amount of bilirubin in the blood increases to 1.5 mg%, causing symptoms of jaundice in the conjunctiva. But if the mucosa is red and inflamed, the amount of bilirubin in the blood increases to 6 - 8 mg%. Jaundice is sometimes unclear in catarrhal enteritis.

Causes of jaundice:

1. Diseases that cause bile duct obstruction such as bile duct stones, cholangitis, duodenitis causing intestinal obstruction, bile pigments seeping into tissues, accumulating under the skin causing.

2. Diseases that cause excessive red blood cell breakdown: heavy metal poisoning, bacterial and viral toxins, some infectious diseases, blood parasites such as flagellates, mycobacteria and border worms.

3. Liver damage – Hepatitis, liver degeneration, cirrhosis, liver with abscesses in cattle liver fluke disease, duck hepatitis.

Purple mucous membrane : purple mucous membrane with a blue tint. In addition to the conjunctiva of the eyes, purple is also evident in the oral mucosa and nasal mucosa; chickens - in the comb; pigs, buffaloes, cows - in the nasal mirror .

The purple color of the mucous membranes is due to the presence of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and methemoglobin in the blood.

Due to diseases that cause severe circulatory and respiratory disorders: myocarditis, pericarditis, heart disease

in the heart valves... causing blood stasis in the small circulation; forms of pneumonia, pulmonary congestion, emphysema,

Collapsed lung limits respiratory function; infectious diseases causing severe poisoning (anthrax, swine fever...) and diseases causing severe pain.

Eye discharge : includes secretions such as mucus, pus, and discharge that accumulate in the eyelids .

Due to eye inflammation and diseases that cause inflammation of the mucous membranes: swine fever, cattle cholera, ear ulcers, vitamin A deficiency. Old cattle, especially old horses, often have eye discharge.

Cattle have high fever, severe pain, and dry eye mucosa.

Swollen eye mucosa: the mucosal wall is swollen, thickened, and sometimes protrudes outward.

Inflammation of the skin and mucous membranes, hematoma, and wetted tissue. In infectious diseases with mucosal inflammation, swollen mucosa is seen in anthrax, swine fever, duck fever, CRD....

III. Lymph node examination

1. diagnostic meaning​​​​

Examination of lymph nodes is important in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases, especially in tuberculosis, leptospirosis, and piroplasmosis. Changes in lymph nodes are very specific.

2. Examination method

Look, feel, and poke when needed.

Buffalo, cow : submandibular lymph nodes, prescapular lymph nodes, prefemoral lymph nodes, supramammary lymph nodes. When suffering from tuberculosis, cervical lymph nodes, lateral ear lymph nodes, pharyngeal lymph nodes (L.retropharyngealis) are prominent and can be felt.

Horses : submandibular lymph nodes, anterior thigh lymph nodes. When there is disease, the lymph nodes in the ear, neck, and anterior shoulder lymph nodes are prominent .

Pigs , dogs, cats : internal inguinal lymph nodes, other lymph nodes are often deep and difficult to feel. Submandibular lymph nodes in buffaloes and cows are located inside the back of the lower jaw bone, as big as a peach kernel, round and flat.


Horse, large, long-shaped submandibular lymph node


Location of the cattle 's agroindustrial nodes

index finger, located along the inner surface of the two lower jaw bones on both sides, behind the submandibular artery ridge.

When examining the submandibular lymph nodes, the examiner stands on the left or right side of the animal, depending on which lymph node is to be examined. One hand holds the reins or rope and the other hand feels the lymph node. The most convenient position is for the examiner to stand on the left side of the animal and examine with the right hand.

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